Contents

Electricity and Magnetism

Chapter 22 Electric Fields
Chapter 23 Continuous Charge Distributions and Gauss’s Law
Chapter 24 Electric Potential
Chapter 25 Capacitance and Dielectrics
Chapter 26 Current and Resistance
Chapter 28 Magnetic Fields
Chapter 29 Sources of the Magnetic Field
Chapter 30 Faraday’s Law
Chapter 31 Inductance
Chapter 33 Electromagnetic Waves
Contents
26.1 Electric Current
26.2 Resistance
26.3 A Model for Electrical Conduction
26.4 Resistance and Temperature
26.5 Superconductors
26.6 Electrical Power
 STORYLINES

Stationary electric charge distributions

Electric fields and electric forces
Potential differences
Capacitance associated with a pair of conductors

Electric charges are in motion???

Electric current: the rate of flow of charge.
Applications – home appliances
Current exists inside/outside a conductor such as a copper wire
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT
 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT

The average current is equal to the charge that

passes through A per unit time :

The instantaneous current as the limit of the

average current as ∆𝑡 → 0

SI unit: 𝐀𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐀
1A = 1C/s
 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT

Microscopic Model of Current

The number of carriers in the segment: 𝒏𝑨∆𝒙
The total charge
∆𝑸 = 𝒏𝑨∆𝒙 𝒒
The displacement of carries in a time interval
∆𝒙 = 𝒗𝒅 ∆𝒕

Then ∆𝑸 = 𝒏𝑨𝒗𝒅 ∆𝒕 𝒒
The segment of a uniform conductor The average current in the conductor
Cross-sectional area A
q: charge on each carrier, move with ∆𝑸 𝒗𝒅 : drift velocity
velocity 𝒗𝒅 𝑰𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = 𝒏𝑨𝒗𝒅 𝒒
n: charge carrier density
∆𝒕
Microscopic Model of Current 1. ELECTRIC CURRENT

Drift velocity
Example: Motion of 2 charge carries in a conductor (free electrons)

Absence of electric field Presence of electric field

random

Drift velocity 𝒗𝒅 = 0 Paths: parabolic

𝒗𝒅 ≪ 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈 : not visible in parabolic shape
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT
2. RESITANCE
 2. RESISTANCE

Ohm’s law
A conductor (ex: a wire)
- Static equilibrium: 𝑬𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎
- Non-static equilibrium: 𝑬𝒊𝒏 ≠ 𝟎, a current exists ( ex: connected a battery)

A conductor of cross-sectional area A carrying a current I.

- The current density J in the conductor is defined as the current per unit area.
𝑰
𝑱 ≡ = 𝒏𝒒𝒗𝒅
𝑨

Ohm’s law: For many materials (including most metals), the ratio of the current density to the
electric field is a constant 𝜎 that is independent of the electric field producing the current.

𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬 𝜎: conductivity of the conductor

 2. RESISTANCE

Resistance
Potential difference with uniform electric field
ℓ𝑱
∆𝑽 = 𝑽𝒃 − 𝑽𝒂 = 𝑬ℓ =
𝝈
ℓ
∆𝑽 = 𝑰 = 𝑹𝑰
𝝈𝑨
𝑰
ℓ 𝑱≡
𝑹= : Resistance of the conductor. 𝑨
𝝈𝑨

The resistance : ratio of the potential difference across a

conductor to the current in the conductor:
∆𝑽
𝑹≡ SI units of resistance: Ohm
𝑰 1Ω = 1𝑉/𝐴
 2. RESISTANCE

Conductivity

The inverse of conductivity is resistivity

𝟏
𝝆=
𝝈
Units of 𝜌 : 𝛺 . 𝑚

ℓ
Because 𝑅 = then
𝜎𝐴

ℓ
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨
2. RESISTANCE
 2. RESISTANCE

The current potential difference curve

An ohmic material

not obey Ohm’s law

A junction diode
 2. RESISTANCE

A junction diode
2. RESISTANCE
3. A MODEL FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
 3. A MODEL FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

The Drude model for electrical conduction

leads to Ohm’s law and shows that resistivity can be related to the motion of electrons in metals

1. Physical components
System : Atoms + conduction electrons

2. Conduction electron’s motions

(a) No electric field: random
(b) An applied electric field: drift slowly vd (opposite
direction of field)
(c) After collision: independent of its initial motion
 3. A MODEL FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

Drift velocity
A free electron of mass me and charge q = -e is subjected to an electric field E

Experience force: 𝑭 = 𝒒𝑬

With acceleration ∑𝑭 𝒒𝑬
𝒂= =
Constant acceleration
𝒎 𝒎𝒆 Uniform electric field

Average value is Zero

The velocity of the electron
𝒒𝑬
𝐯𝐟 = 𝒗𝐢 + 𝒂𝒕 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒕
𝒎𝒆
With the average time interval 𝝉 between successive collisions, the average value of vf is
equal to the drift velocity

𝒒𝑬
𝐯𝐟,𝐚𝐯𝐠 = 𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉
𝒎𝒆
 3. A MODEL FOR ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION

Conductivity and resistivity

The average current in the conductor is given by
𝒒𝑬 𝒏𝒒𝟐 𝝉𝑨
𝑰𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝒏𝒒 𝝉 𝑨= 𝑬
𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒆
The current density J is the current divided by the area A
𝒏𝒒𝟐 𝝉
𝑱= 𝑬
𝒎𝒆
Since Ohm’s law 𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬 then conductivity and resistivity of a conductor
𝒏𝒒𝟐 𝝉 𝟏 𝒎𝒆
𝝈= 𝝆= =
𝒎𝒆 𝝈 𝒏𝒒𝟐 𝝉
Between collisions ℓ𝑎𝑣𝑔 (the mean free path) and the average speed 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 through the expression

ℓ𝒂𝒗𝒈
𝝉=
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈
4. RESISTANCE AND TEMPERATURE
 4. RESISTANCE AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature coefficient
Over a limited temperature range, the resistivity of a conductor

𝝆 = 𝝆𝟎 𝟏 + 𝜶 𝑻 − 𝑻𝟎
𝜌 is the resistivity at some temperature
𝜌0 : at temperature T0 (~20℃)
𝛼: temperature coefficient of resistivity

The temperature coefficient of resistivity can be expressed as

∆𝝆/𝝆𝟎
𝜶=
∆𝑻
The variation of resistance of a sample

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 𝟏 + 𝜶 𝑻 − 𝑻𝟎
4. RESISTANCE AND TEMPERATURE
5. SUPERCONDUCTORS
 5. SUPERCONDUCTORS

Superconductor: metals/compounds R → 0 below critical temperature Tc.

Magnet

A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor, cooled with liquid nitrogen.

 5. SUPERCONDUCTORS

Superconductor: metals/compounds R → 0 below critical temperature Tc.

The resistance–temperature
graph for mercury Hg
6. ELECTRICAL POWER
 6. ELECTRICAL POWER

Energy transfer
A charge moves along 𝒂 → 𝒃 → 𝒄 → 𝒅 → 𝒂
𝒂 → 𝒃 : through battery: increase energy 𝑼𝑬 = 𝑸. ∆𝑽
𝒄 → 𝒅 : through resistor: decrease energy by collisions with atoms
𝒃 → 𝒄 and 𝒅 → 𝒂 : neglect
• The resistor as system
The resistor increase temperature as :
+ TET receives energy from the battery
+ TER radiates energy into the surroundings

∆𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝑸 + 𝑻𝑬𝑻 + 𝑻𝑬𝑹 Circuit of a battery + a resistor

• The entire circuit as the system

∆𝑼𝑪 + ∆𝑬𝒊𝒏𝒕 = 𝑸 + 𝑻𝑬𝑹

 6. ELECTRICAL POWER

Electrical power
The rate of energy transfer: system decreases as the
charge Q passes through the resistor

𝒅𝑼𝑬 𝒅 𝒅𝑸
= 𝑸∆𝑽 = ∆𝑽 = 𝑰∆𝑽
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The power P: the rate of energy delivered to the resistor

𝑷 = 𝑰∆𝑽

∆𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 then the power delivered to the resistor in the

alternative forms
Circuit of a battery + a resistor
𝟐
𝟐
∆𝑽
𝑷=𝑰 𝑹=
𝑹
6. ELECTRICAL POWER
 Summary
The electric current 𝑰
Current density 𝑱 ≡ = 𝒏𝒒𝒗𝒅
𝑨
The average current in the conductor
∆𝑸 Current density 𝑱 = 𝝈𝑬 𝒗𝒅 : drift speed
𝑰𝒂𝒗𝒈 = = 𝒏𝑨𝒗𝒅 𝒒
∆𝒕
Resistance Units : Ohm, 1Ω = 1𝑉/𝐴
∆𝑽
𝑹≡ ℓ
𝑰 Uniform block material 𝑹 = 𝝆
𝑨
Drude model
𝒒𝑬 𝒏𝒒𝟐 𝝉 𝟏 𝒎𝒆 ℓ𝒂𝒗𝒈
𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉 𝝈= 𝝆= = 𝝉=
𝒎𝒆 𝒎𝒆 𝝈 𝒏𝒒𝟐 𝝉 𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈
Conductivity Resistivity
Resistivity ∆𝝆/𝝆𝟎
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 𝟏 + 𝜶 𝑻 − 𝑻𝟎 𝜶=
∆𝑻

∆𝑽 𝟐
Electrical power 𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑰 ∆𝑽 𝑰 𝑹 =
𝑹