EE 151 – Applied

Electricity
Instructor : E.A Affum
Assistants: A. Robert & W. Fortunatus
E-mail: infotee7@gmail.com
Phone: 0547926139
Room: Ceaser Building room 316
Lecture Outline
Fundamentals of DC Circuits
⚫ Introduction to DC and AC Circuits
⚫ Active and Passive elements
⚫ Ohm’s law
⚫ Current and voltage division
⚫ Voltage current relations (Resister, Capacitor, Inductor)
⚫ Circuit and Network Theorems-Kirchhoff, Thevenin, Norton's,
Superposition, Reciprocity and Delta-Star Transformation.
⚫ Mesh and Nodal Analysis
⚫ Ideal sources – equivalent circuits
Introduction to DC and AC circuits
Applied Electricity introduces the fundamentals of electricity
including generations, transmission and distribution. It also
introduces electric circuit arrangements, the principle of
operations of transformers and motors and their applications
AC- Alternating Circuit – circuit that is excited using alternating
sources. In an AC circuit, the value of the magnitude and the
direction of current and voltages is not constant, it changes at a
regular interval of time.
Introduction to DC and AC circuits

DC – Direct Current – the close path in which direct current

flows, the current flows in only one direction and is mostly used
in low voltages.
Generator Principle
An electrical generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy
(or power) into electrical energy (or power). Induced e.m.f is produced in
it according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

This e.m.f cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. Hence,
two basic essential parts of an electrical generator are:

1. Magnetic field.
2. Conductor or conductors which can move as to cut the flux.

Generators are driven by a source of mechanical power, which is usually

called the prime mover of the generator(steam turbine, diesel engine, or
even an electric motor).
DC Generator
An electrical DC machine can convert mechanical energy into direct
current electricity (DC generator) or vice versa (DC motor) without any
constructional changes.
Operating Principle of DC Generator
To convert mechanical energy into electrical energy three requirements are essential:
1. Conductors
2. Magnetic field
3. Mechanical energy
An alternating AC current is produced by rotating a loop in a constant magnetic field.
Current on left is outward by right-hand rule. The right segment has an inward current

Faraday’s Law: If a wire moves through magnetic field, a voltage is induced in it

A potential difference is maintained across the conductor as long as there is motion
through the field. If motion is reversed, polarity of potential difference is also reversed.
Operating Principle of DC Generator

The total induced voltage on the loop is:

𝟐𝒗𝑩𝒍 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆

𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 =
𝟎 𝒂𝒘𝒂𝒚 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆
AC Generator
AC generator, also known as alternator, is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. The generated electrical energy
is in the form of an alternating current sinusoidal output waveform.
Operating Principle of AC Generator
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction which states that electromotive force -EMF or voltage – is
generated in a current-carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field.

When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature changes
continuously. Due to this, an emf is induced in the armature.

This produces an electric current that flows through the galvanometer and
the slip rings and brushes. The galvanometer swings between positive and
negative values.

This indicates that there is an alternating current flowing through the

galvanometer. The direction of the induced current can be identified using
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Circuit terminologies
Node (Junction) - A point where currents split or come together
[ points c, d, e and f]

Path – Any connection where current flows [eg bc, be, fa]

b c e g

a d f h
Circuit terminologies
Branch – A connection (path) between two nodes [eg. cd, cbad,
df]
Loop/Mesh – a closed path of a circuit [ eg. cghdc]

b c e g

a d f h
Circuit terminologies
Branch – A connection (path) between two nodes [eg. cd,
cbad, df]

Loop/Mesh – a closed path of a circuit [ eg. cghdc]

b c e g

a d f h
Circuit terminologies
Current: the directed flow of electrons (charge) called current. It is denoted by I. units are
Amps
Electrical potential: charged body capacity to do work is known as its electrical potential.
Potential difference: difference in potentials of two charged bodies is called Potential
difference
Power: the rate at which an electrical work done in electrical work is called power. It is
denoted by P. units are Watt
Electrical work: Electrical work is said to be done when there is transfer of charge. It is
denoted by W. units are joules.
Energy: capacity to do work is called energy.
Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called
an electrical network
Classification of Circuit Elements
In electrical circuits, we can classify the circuit elements mainly as;
Active Elements (energy sources) – They are voltage and current
sources.
Example: Generators, Vacuum tubes, transistors, voltage and current
sources, diodes etc.
An active element without doubt, amplifies the power of a signal (Voltage
or current).
A transistor is a good example that acts as an amplifier in radio and RF
circuits
Classification of Circuit Elements
Passive Elements – They either dissipate energy in the form of heat or
store energy.
Example: Resistor R, inductor L, and capacitor C. R dissipate energy in the
form of head. L stores energy in its magnetic field. C stores energy in its
electrostatic filed.
Classification of Circuit Elements
Electrical Network
The connection of passive and active elements by means of conductors is
called an active network. If the active sources are absent, it is called
passive network. It is also the interconnection of electrical components.

A simple electric network made up of a voltage source and a resister.

Here 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅, according to Ohm’s law.
Short Circuit (SC)
A. two-terminal element for which voltage must be zero when the current
is zero. A branch of theoretically zero resistance. It diverts to itself all
currents that would have flown in adjacent branches (branches hooked
to the same node) except branches with sources

Mathematically, 𝑉 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 𝑡 ≠ 0

𝑹→𝟎
𝑽 𝑽
𝑰= = =∞
𝑹 𝟎
Short Circuit (SC)

a b R1 c R3 d R1 a R2 R4

V R2 V R3
h g e
f b
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Short Circuit (SC) - Illustration
Which of the resistors in the circuit below have been short-
circuited?

R1

V R2 R3
Open Circuit (OC)
A branch of theoretically infinite resistance. It prevents current from
flowing in its branches.

𝑹→∞
𝑽 𝑽
𝑰= = =𝟎
𝑹 ∞
Open Circuit (OC)

R2 R3 R5

V R1 R4
Ohm’s Law
The ratio between the potential difference across two terminal of a
conductor and the current through it remains constant, when the
physical conditions of the conductor remail unchanged. Here the physical
condition is the temperature.
𝑽
Mathematically, = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑰
𝑽
Or =𝑹
𝑰
Or 𝐕=𝑰×𝑹
This is ohm’s law. By knowing any two quantities, the third can be
calculated.
𝑽𝟐
Power, P = VI =𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑹
Ohm’s Law
Note 1: If you interchange the terminals, the same current will flow but in
the opposite direction.
Note 2: For a diode, When it is forward-biased, the current is higher, and
when it is reverse-biased, the current is very low.
Note 3: Taking current along X axis, a graph can be plotted to represent
ohms law. This will be a straight line passing through the origin. The slope
of this line represents the resistance.

Limitations of ohm’s law:

1. It cannot be applied to non-metallic conductors.
2. Cannot be applied to non-linear devices such as Zener diode.
Voltage-Current relations
Circuit response of single elements for DC
Element Voltage across Current in element
element
Resistance R 𝑽 = 𝑹𝒊 𝑽
𝒊=
𝑹

Inductance L 𝒅𝒊 𝟏
𝑽=𝑳 𝒊 = න 𝑽. 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝑳

Capacitance C 𝟏 𝒅𝒗
𝑽 = න 𝒊. 𝒅𝒕 𝒊=𝑪
𝑪 𝒅𝒕
Voltage across elements
Resister
Resister in series
Resistors are in series when the same current flows through
them. There is NO JUNCTION between them.

R1 R2 R1 R2

V V R3

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
• In Fig. 1 : R1 and R2 are in series
• In Fig. 2: None of the resistors are in series
Resistors in series
Try 1
Which of the following resistors are in series?
R2 R5 R6

R3

R1
R4
Resistors in series
Total(effective resistance of series resistors)
The total resistance RT for resistors R1, R2, R3, ….., RN which are in series if
given by: 𝑹 = 𝑹 + 𝑹 +. . . +𝑹𝑵
𝑻 𝟏 𝟐
Let three resistance 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 be connected in series across a battery of V
volts, obviously, the current I is the same throughout the circuit. By Ohm’s law,
the voltages across the resistance are;
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 ; 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 ; 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽 𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑
= 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 + 𝑰𝑹𝟑
𝑽
= 𝑰(𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 ) or = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
𝑰
The ratio of(V/I) is called the total or equivalent resistance of the three
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
resistance. Also, = + + (in term of conductance)
𝑮𝑻 𝑮𝟏 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟑
Resistors in series
Concepts of series circuit
1. The current flowing in all parts of the circuit is same.

2. Voltages across the different elements will depend upon the resistance of
elements.

3. Voltage drops are additive

4. Resistance are additive

5. Powers are additive

6. The applied voltage equals the sum of different voltages

Resistors in parallel
Resistors are said to be in parallel when the voltage across them is
the same.

R1//R2 R1//R2
Resistors in parallel
Colloquially, TWO resistors are in parallel if it is possible to move from one
to the other without passing through another element. i.e., the two can
be circled without passing through another circuit element.

R1//R2
R1//R3
R3//R2
Resistors in parallel
Try 2
Which of the following resistors are in parallel?

1.6Ω

3Ω 6Ω

4Ω
 Effective resistance of a circuit
Effective circuit resistance is found by identifying and putting together
series and or parallel resistors
Example 1. Find the total resistance of the circuit below
 Effective resistance of a circuit
Example 1 Solution.

23
RT = (2 // 3) + 1 =
11
+1 = 
2+3 5
 Effective resistance of a circuit
Example 2. Find the total resistance of the circuit below
 Effective resistance of a circuit
Example 2 Solution.

2 2
RT = (2 // 2) + 1 = + 1 = 2
2+2
Effective resistance of a circuit
Try 3
Find the total resistance of the circuit below
2Ω

3Ω 6Ω

4Ω
V
Effective resistance of a circuit
Try 4
Find the total resistance of the circuit below
Effective resistance of a circuit
Try 5
Find the total resistance of the circuit below
Internal Resistance of Sources
Voltage Sources: All voltage sources(battery, generators, etc.) must have
some internal (r) (very small in value). This is shown as a series resistor
connected external to the source in Fig i.
Current Sources: All current sources must have some internal resistance
(r) (very high in value). This connected externally across the source, as
shown in Fig ii.
Capacitors
Capacitors
Capacitors are devices that sore electrical energy in their electrostatic
field. It has two parallel plates of opposite charges. The value of a
capacitor is called capacitance (C), measured in Farad.

Capacitance is the ratio of the magnitude of charge Q on one plate to the

potential difference (V) across the capacitor.
𝑸
𝑪=
𝑽
𝜺 𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝑨
𝑪=
𝒅
Where 𝜺𝟎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜺𝒓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦,
𝑨 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒅 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠
Capacitors
The energy stored in a capacitor E is proportional to the charge and to
the potential difference.

𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
𝑬 = 𝑸𝑽 = = 𝑪𝑽
𝟐 𝟐𝑪 𝟐
The V-I relationship for a capacitor is governed by the following
equation

𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝒕
𝒊=𝑪 𝒐𝒓 𝒗 = න 𝒊𝒅𝒕 + 𝒗 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝑪 𝟎
V(O) is the initial voltage stored in the capacitor. When v
𝑑𝑣
=V(Constant), = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = 0, Hence a capacitor acts as an open
𝑑𝑡
circuit
Capacitors in series
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than
any one of the series capacitors’ individual capacitances.

Note: Capacitances diminish in series

Calculating the effective series capacitance in a circuit is given by:

Capacitors in parallel
If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the overall effect is
that of a single equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate
areas of the individual capacitors.

Note: Capacitances add in parallel.

Calculating the effective parallel capacitance in a circuit is given by:

Inductors
 Inductors
Inductors are devices which store electrical energy in their filed. An inductor.
It a piece of conducting wire generally wrapped around a core of
ferromagnetic material.
The V-I relationship of an inductor is given by:

𝒅𝒗 𝟏 𝒕
v= 𝑳 𝒐𝒓 𝒊 = ‫׬‬𝟎
𝒗𝒅𝒕 +𝒊 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝑳

L is the inductance in Henry (H) and i(0) is the initial current stored in the
𝑑𝑖
magnetic field of the inductor. When 𝑖 = 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝐶 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = 0, Hence a inductors acts as a short circuit to direct current
Inductors in series
The definitive measure of inductance is the amount of voltage dropped
across an inductor for a given rate of current change through it.

If inductors are connected together in series (thus sharing the same

current, and seeing the same rate of change in current), then the total
voltage dropped as the result of a change in current will be additive with
each inductor, creating a greater total voltage than either of the individual
inductors alone.

Calculating the effective series inductance of a circuit is given by:

Current Division Rule
The current division rule is applied to share current between parallel
branches. Consider the circuits below.
I
I1 I2

V R1 R2

Case 1: When two resistance are in parallel, Two resistances

𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 Ω are connected in parallel across a battery V volts. The
current 𝑅1 is 𝐼1 and through 𝑅2 is 𝐼1
Current Division Rule
Case 1 cont.
Similarly, calculating for the current passing through 𝑅1
R1 R2
RT = I
R1 + R2
I1 I2

R1 R2 V R1 R2
V = IRT = I
R1 + R2

R1 R2
I
V R1 + R2 R1 R2 1 R2
I1 = = =I  =I
R1 R1 R1 + R2 R1 R1 + R2
Current Division Rule
Case 1 cont.
Similarly, calculating for the current passing through 𝑅2
R1 R2
RT =
R1 + R2
I

R1 R2 I1 I2
V = IRT = I
R1 + R2 V R1 R2

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉 𝐼 𝑅1 𝑅2 1 𝑅1
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐼2 = = =𝐼 × =𝐼
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Current Division Rule
Comparing currents
I
I1 I2

V R1 R2

R2 R1
I1 = I I2 = I
R1 + R2 R1 + R2
Current Division Rule
Consider the figure below,
I
I1 I2

V R1 R2

R2
I1 = I I2 = −
R1
I
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Why is 𝐼2 negative??
 Current Division Rule
Case 2: When three resistance are in parallel, Three resistances
𝑅1 , 𝑅2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅3 Ω are connected in parallel across a battery V volts. The
current 𝑅1 is 𝐼1 , through 𝑅2 is 𝐼2 and through 𝑅3 is 𝐼3
Total resistance is given by
by ohm’s law,
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑉 𝑅2 𝑅3
the current through 𝑅1 is 𝐼1 = =𝐼
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
1 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
= 𝑉 𝑅1 𝑅3
𝑅𝑇 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 the current through 𝑅2 is 𝐼2 = = 𝐼
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑉 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1 the current through 𝑅3 is 𝐼3 = =𝐼
𝑅3 𝑅1 𝑅2 +𝑅2 𝑅3 +𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑇 = 𝐼
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 + 𝑅3 𝑅1
Current Division Rule
Example 1,
Find the values of I1 and I2 in the circuit below.
10A
I1 I2

V 3Ω 2Ω

Solution
R2 2 R1 3
I1 = I=  10 = 4 A I2 = − I =−  10 = −6 A
R1 + R2 2+3 R1 + R2 2+3
Current Division Rule
Example 2,
Find the values of I1 in the circuit below.
10A
I1

V 3Ω 2Ω 2Ω

Solution
10A
I1
1
V 3Ω 1Ω I1 =  10 = 2.5 A
1+ 3
Current Division Rule
Example 2,
Find the values of I1 in the circuit below.
10A
I1

V 3Ω 2Ω 2Ω

Solution
10A
I1

1
V 3Ω 1Ω
I1 =  10 = 2.5 A
1+ 3
Voltage Drop
Any time a voltage drives current through a resistor, some of the
voltage drops across the resistor.

The magnitude of the drop is the product of the resistance and

current
V1 V2
I
R1 R2

V2 = V − V1
Voltage Drop
Example
Find the values of I and R in the circuit below.

I 4V

R 3
10V

Solution
Voltage across 3Ω resistor = 10 – 4 = 6V
Current in 3Ω resistor = I = 6/3 = 2A
Resistance R = 4V/I = 4/2 = 2Ω
Voltage Division Rule
Let ‘n’ resistances 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 , … 𝑅𝑛 be connected in series across a
battery of V volts. The current flowing through all the resistances is I
and is the same as show in the figure below

The equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 +. . . +𝑅𝑛

𝑛

= ෍ 𝑅𝑥
𝑥=1
Voltage Division Rule
𝑉
The current through the series circuit, 𝐼 = (𝑜ℎ𝑚′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤)
𝑅𝑇
Voltage across each resistance is
𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1 , 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2 … 𝑉𝑥 = 𝐼𝑅𝑥 … ; 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐼𝑅𝑛

𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
i.e. 𝑉1 = 𝑅 ; 𝑉2 = 𝑅 ;… 𝑉𝑥 = 𝑅
𝑅𝑇 1 𝑅𝑇 2 𝑅𝑇 𝑥

Hence The voltage across any resistance is the series circuit is

𝑅𝑥
= 𝑉𝑥 𝑉
𝑅𝑇
Solved Example
Find the value of I in the circuit below.

I
3 3.5
4 1 2 5 7
25V

Solution I I
3 6

4 1 2 4 1 5
25V 25V
Solved Example

12

13
1
25V

25 V 25
RT =  IT = = = 13 A
13 RT 25
13
Solved Example
I

4 1
25V

6
I =− 5  13 = −3 A
6
+4
5
 Try Example
Find the value of the current in all resistors of the circuit below using total
resistance and voltage drop principles. DO NOT use current division rule.

3.5 3
2 1 4 5 7
25V
Next
• Kirchhoff's laws,
• Thevenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
• Superposition Theorem
• Mesh analysis,
• Nodal analysis,
• Ideal sources –equivalent resistor,
• Maximum power Transfer
Thank You