Physics 51

Lecture

Electric 11
Circuits
 2

1. Electric Current
2. Resistance, Resistivity,
Ohm’s Law, & Power
3. Resistors in Series & Parallel
3
 4

The transfer of energy takes place via an electric circuit,

in which the energy source (the battery pack) and
the energy-consuming device (the MP3 player) are
connected by conducting wires,
through which electric charges move.
 5

Within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs that transfers

electrons from one terminal (leaving it positively charged)
to another terminal (leaving it negatively charged).
 6

Electric Current
Suppose ∆𝑄 is the amount of charge that flows through an
area 𝐴 in a time interval ∆𝑡 and that the direction of flow is
perpendicular to the area.
Then the average current 𝑰𝐚𝐯 is equal to the amount of
charge divided by the time interval:

∆𝑄
𝐼av =
∆𝑡
SI unit: coulomb/second (𝑪/𝒔),
or the ampere (A)
 7

NOTE:
 Moving charges, whether positive or negative, are
referred to as charge carriers.

 In reality, the speed of the charge carriers 𝒗𝒅 is an

average speed called the drift speed.

 A battery does not supply electrons to the circuit.

It establishes the electric field that exerts a force on
electrons already in the wires and elements of the
circuit.
 8

Electric Current
If 𝒏 represents the number of mobile charge carriers per unit
volume (in other words, the charge carrier density), the
number of carriers in the segment is 𝒏𝑨∆𝒙.
The total charge ∆𝑸 in this segment is

∆𝑄 = 𝑛𝐴∆𝑥 𝑞
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

𝐼av = 𝑛𝑞𝑣𝑑 𝐴
 9

Instantaneous Current
If the rate at which charge
flows varies in time, the When the current
current varies in time.
We define the instantaneous is steady,
current 𝑰 as the differential
limit of average current as the average and
∆𝑡 → 0:
instantaneous
𝑑𝑄 currents are the
𝐼= same.
𝑑𝑡
10
11
12
 13

The current in
the solution is
carried by both
positive
charges
(𝐍𝐚+ ions)
and negative
charges
(𝐂𝐥− ions).
 14
Current & Voltage Measurements in Circuits
 15
Current & Voltage Measurements in Circuits
 16

Look at the four “circuits” shown below, and select those that will
light the bulb.

A B

C D
 17

Resistance
When a voltage (potential difference) ∆𝑉 is applied across the
ends of a metallic conductor, the current in the conductor is
found to be proportional to the applied voltage:

𝐼 ∝ ∆𝑉
∆𝑉
𝑅≡
𝐼
The resistance 𝑹 is the ratio of the voltage across the conductor
to the current it carries. The SI unit is volts/ampere = ohms 𝛀 .
 18

Ohm’s Law
For many materials, including most metals, experiments show that
the resistance remains constant over a wide range of
applied voltages or currents.

Ohm’s law is given by

∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
where 𝑹 is understood to be independent of 𝜟𝑽, the
potential drop across the resistor, and 𝑰, the current in the
resistor.
 19

The circuit in this flashlight

consists of a resistor
(the filament of the light bulb)
connected to a 𝟑. 𝟎-𝑉
battery (two 𝟏. 𝟓-𝑉 batteries).
 20

In circuit A, the battery that supplies energy has twice as

much voltage as the battery in circuit B. However, the
current in circuit A is only one-half the current in circuit B.

Circuit A presents __________ the resistance to the current

that circuit B does.

a. twice d. four times

b. one-half e. one-fourth
c. the same
 21

Color Coding for Resistors

 22

Resistance vs. Resistivity

For a wide range of materials, the resistance of a piece of
material of length 𝑳 and cross-sectional area 𝑨 is

𝜌𝐿 𝑅𝐴
𝑅= 𝜌=
𝐴 𝐿
where 𝝆 is a proportionality constant known as the
resistivity of the material.

SI unit: ohm∙meter Ω ∙ 𝑚
 23

Resistivity of various materials

 24

Resistivity 𝜌 is the inverse 1

of conductivity 𝜎 : 𝜌=
𝜎

Two materials have different resistivities. Two wires of the

same length are made, one from each of the materials.
Is it possible for each wire to have the same resistance?
a. Yes, if the material with the greater resistivity is
used for a thinner wire.
b. Yes, if the material with the greater resistivity is
used for a thicker wire.
c. No, it is not possible.
 25

Electric Power
When electric charge flows from
point A to point B in a circuit, leading
to a current 𝑰, and the voltage
between the points is 𝑽,
the electric power is

SI unit: watt 𝑊
 26

For the two light bulbs shown

in the figure,

rank the current values

at points 𝒂 through 𝒇
from greatest to least.
 27

Resistors in Series

When two resistors

are connected in
series,
the same current
𝑰 is in both of
them.
 28

Resistors in Series
Because of the series wiring,
the voltage 𝑽 supplied by the
battery is divided between the
two resistors.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2
= 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2
= 𝐼 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝒔 where 𝑹𝒔 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 29

Resistors in Series
In general, the voltage across all the resistors in series is
the sum of the individual voltages across each resistor.

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + ⋯
where 𝑹𝒔 is called the equivalent resistance of the
series circuit.

In general, the total power delivered to any number of resistors in

series is equal to the power delivered to the equivalent resistance.
 30

Resistors in Parallel

When two resistors

are connected in
parallel,
the same voltage
𝑽 is applied
across each
resistor.
 31

When an electrical
appliance is plugged
into a wall socket,
the appliance is
connected in parallel
with other appliances.

The presence of the

unused socket or other
devices that are turned off
does not affect the
operation of those devices
that are turned on.
 32

Resistors in Parallel
Because of the parallel wiring,
the total current 𝑰 from the
battery is the sum of 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 .

𝑉 𝑉 1 1
𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = + =𝑉 +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑅2

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑰=𝑽 where = +
𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝒑 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
 33

Resistors in Parallel
In general, for any number of resistors wired in parallel,
the total current from the voltage source is the sum of the
currents in the individual resistors.

1 1 1 1
= + + +⋯
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
where 𝑹𝒑 is called the equivalent resistance of the
parallel circuit.
 34

Four resistors are

arranged as shown in
the figure.
Determine
a. the equivalent
resistance of the
circuit; and
b. the current in the
circuit.
 35

𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4

𝑅𝑠 = 𝟐. 𝟎 Ω + 𝟒. 𝟎 Ω + 𝟓. 𝟎 Ω + 𝟕. 𝟎 Ω

𝑅𝑠 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎 Ω

Δ𝑉 𝟔. 𝟎 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑅𝑠 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎 Ω

𝐼 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 Ω
 36

Three resistors are connected in

parallel as shown in the figure.
A potential difference of 𝟏𝟖 𝑉 is
maintained between points 𝒂 & 𝒃.
a. Find the current in each resistor.

b. Calculate the power delivered to each resistor and the

total power.
c. Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
d. Find the total power delivered to the equivalent resistance.
 37

a. Find the current in each resistor.

 38

b. Calculate the power delivered

to each resistor and the total
power.

Δ𝑉 2 18 𝑉 2
𝟑. 𝟎 Ω: 𝒫1 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝑊
𝑅1 3.0 Ω
𝒫total = 𝒫1 + 𝒫2 + 𝒫3
Δ𝑉 2 18 𝑉 2
𝟔. 𝟎 Ω: 𝒫2 = = = 𝟓𝟒 𝑊 = 108 𝑊 + 54 𝑊 + 36 𝑊
𝑅2 6.0 Ω

Δ𝑉2
18 𝑉 2 𝒫total = 𝟏𝟗𝟖 𝑊
𝟗. 𝟎 Ω: 𝒫2 = = = 𝟑𝟔 𝑊
𝑅2 9.0 Ω
 39

c. Find the equivalent

resistance of the circuit.

1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅𝑝 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

1 1 1 1
= + + = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟏 Ω−1
𝑅𝑝 𝟑. 𝟎 Ω 𝟔. 𝟎 Ω 𝟗. 𝟎 Ω

𝑅𝑝 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒 Ω
 40

d. Find the total power delivered to the

equivalent resistance.

Δ𝑉 2 18 𝑉 2
𝒫total = =
𝑅𝑝 1.64 Ω

𝒫total = 𝟏𝟗𝟕. 𝟔 𝑊
As expected, the total power dissipated in the
equivalent resistor is the same as the sum of the power
dissipated in the individual resistors.
 41

𝑅1

The figure shows a

circuit composed of a
𝟐𝟒-𝑉 battery and four 𝑅3
resistors. Find
a. the total current 𝑅2
supplied by the
battery; and 𝑅4
b. the voltage
between points 𝑨
and 𝑩 in the circuit.
 42

The total current that is supplied by the battery

can be obtained from Ohm’s law, 𝑰 = 𝜟𝑽/𝑹𝐞𝐪 ,
where 𝑹𝐞𝐪 is the equivalent resistance of the
four resistors.

𝑹𝟑𝟒 = 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎 Ω + 𝟐𝟓𝟎 Ω = 𝟒𝟕𝟎 Ω

𝑅3
𝑅34
𝑅4
 43

1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅2 𝑅34 𝟏𝟖𝟎 Ω 𝟒𝟕𝟎 Ω

𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 Ω

𝑅2 𝑅34 𝑅𝐴𝐵
 44

𝑅eq = 𝑅1 + 𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎 Ω + 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 Ω

𝑅eq = 𝟐𝟒𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 Ω
∆𝑉 𝟐𝟒 𝑉
𝐼= =
𝑅eq 𝟐𝟒𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 Ω

𝑅1 𝐼 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝐴

𝑅𝐴𝐵 𝑅eq
the total
current
supplied by
the battery
 45

b. the voltage between points 𝑨 and 𝑩 in the circuit

𝑅1 ∆𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝐴𝐵

𝑅𝐴𝐵 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝐴 𝟏𝟑𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 Ω

∆𝑉 = 𝟏𝟑 𝑉
 46

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES or LAWS

1. Current Law (a.k.a. Junction Rule)
The sum of the currents entering any junction
must equal the sum of the currents leaving that
junction.

𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
 47

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES or LAWS

2. Voltage Law (a.k.a. Loop Rule)
The sum of the potential differences across all
the elements around any closed circuit loop
must be zero.

Junction Rule Conservation of Charge

Loop Rule Conservation of Energy

 48

Find the currents in the

circuit shown in the figure
by using Kirchhoff’s rules.

NOTE:
There are three unknown
currents in this circuit, so we
must obtain three
independent equations.
 49

Apply the junction rule to point 𝒄.

Eq. (1)

Apply the loop rule to the bottom

loop, traversing it clockwise starting
at point 𝒂.

Eq. (2)
 50

Apply the loop rule to the top loop,

traversing it clockwise from point 𝒄.

Eq. (3)

From Eq. (3),

Substituting to Eq. (1),

 51

Eq. (2)

Substituting 𝐼1 = 2.8 𝐼3 to Eq. (2),

4.0 2.8 𝐼3 + 9.0 𝐼3 = 6.0

6.0
𝐼3 =
4.0 2.8 + 9.0

𝑰𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟕 𝐴
𝐼1 = 2.8 𝐼3 = 2.8 0.297 𝐴 𝑰𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟐 𝐴
𝐼2 = 1.8 𝐼3 = 1.8 0.297 𝐴 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟑𝟓 𝐴
 52

Find the currents in

the circuit shown in
the figure by using 𝐼𝐶
Kirchhoff’s rules.

NOTE: 𝐼𝐵
There are three unknown
currents in this circuit, so 𝐼𝐴
we must obtain three
independent equations.
 53

𝐼𝐶

Apply the junction rule to point 𝑩.

𝐼𝐵
𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝑩 = 𝑰𝑪 Eq. (1) 𝐼𝐴

Apply the loop rule to loop 𝑭𝑨𝑪𝑫.

Δ𝑉 = Δ𝑉14 𝑉 + Δ𝑉0.1 Ω + ∆𝑉1.2 Ω = 0

14 − 0.1 𝑰𝑨 − 1.2 𝑰𝑪 = 0 Eq. (2)

 54

𝐼𝐶

Eq. (1) 𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝑩 = 𝑰𝑪
𝐼𝐵
𝐼𝐴
Eq. (2) 14 − 0.1 𝑰𝑨 − 1.2 𝑰𝑪 = 0

Apply the loop rule to loop 𝑬𝑩𝑪𝑫.

Δ𝑉 = Δ𝑉12 𝑉 + Δ𝑉0.01 Ω + ∆𝑉1.2 Ω = 0

12 − 0.01 𝑰𝑩 − 1.2 𝑰𝑪 = 0 Eq. (3)

 55
Eq. (1) 𝑰𝑨 + 𝑰𝑩 = 𝑰𝑪
Eq. (2) 14 − 0.1 𝑰𝑨 − 1.2 𝑰𝑪 = 0
Eq. (3) 12 − 0.01 𝑰𝑩 − 1.2 𝑰𝑪 = 0

1.2 𝑰𝑪 − 14
From Eq. (2), 𝑰𝑨 = = −12 𝑰𝑪 + 140
−0.1
1.2 𝑰𝑪 − 12
From Eq. (3), 𝑰𝑩 = = −120 𝑰𝑪 + 1200
−0.01
From Eq. (1), −12 𝑰𝑪 + 140 + −120 𝑰𝑪 + 1200 = 𝑰𝑪
1340 = 133 𝑰𝑪
𝑰𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏 𝐴
 56

𝐼𝐶

𝑰𝑨 = −12 𝑰𝑪 + 140
𝐼𝐵
1340 𝐼𝐴
= −12 + 140
133

𝑰𝑨 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟏 𝐴
1340
𝑰𝑩 = −120 𝑰𝑪 + 1200 = −120 + 1200
133
𝑰𝑩 = −𝟗. 𝟎 𝐴