IGCSE Electricity

Cells and Batteries

Chemical reactions inside a cell help to create a small potential difference

between the terminals and this makes the electrons flow along any
conducting path that connects them.

A current (flow of charge) will flow through an electrical component only

if there is a voltage or potential difference (p.d.) across its
ends.
Electrons have a negative
charge and will normally sit
around the positive protons of
their own atom, but if a
neighbouring atom has a
positive charge (due to a missing electron) then the electron will
‘jump’ across. When the electron jumps it leaves behind a gap (a
positive charge on that atom), this leaves room for another electron to fill that gap and so on. This
gives the effect of the gaps (positive charge) moving in one direction, known as conventional current,
and the electrons moving, known as electron flow, in another. This kind of current is called direct
current or d.c., which means the current only goes in one direction. There is another form of current
called alternating current, a.c., which has current constantly changing direction.

Energy from a Cell

The cell is a source of Chemical potential energy. It does work on electrons and as a result the
electrons gain Electrical potential energy (we call it just potential energy).

P.D. (Potential difference or Voltage) across battery terminals

The p.d. or voltage across the terminals of the cell indicates the potential energy given to each
coulomb (approximately 1018 electrons) of charge.

If 1 Joule of energy is given to 1 Coulomb of electric charge by the battery, then we say that the p.d.
across the cell is 1 Volt.

In the diagram on the right, the battery gives out 4 joules of

potential energy to each coulomb of charge passing through
it. Thus the p.d. across the battery is 4 volts.

When the charges move through the wire they do not lose
any of the potential energy they are carrying. When they pass
through something that resists their flow, they will have to do
work.

On passing through the first, bigger, light bulb they lose

3 joules of energy per coulomb and lose the remaining 1 joule
of energy at the second smaller light bulb. Thus we say the
p.d. across the first light bulb is 3 volts and across the
second bulb 1 volt.

The p.d. across a battery or a bulb can be measured using a voltmeter.

P.D.s. around a circuit

In the diagram on the left the voltmeter across the battery

shows the potential energy gained by the chares when they
pass through the battery. The voltmeters across the bulbs show
the loss in potential energy as the charges pass through the
bulbs.

The SUM of the p.d.s around the conducting path from one
battery terminal to the other is the same as the p.d. across
the battery.

Each resistor in a parallel arrangement has the same p.d. across it. Resistors connected in parallel
will have the full battery p.d. across it.

Current

The current in a circuit is the rate at which charge is flowing. It is measured in Amperes (A).

1 A is equivalent to 1 Coulomb of charge (1018 electrons) passing a point in the circuit in 1 second.
Charge (C)
Current ( A )=
Time (s )
Q=I ×t
Current is measured using an ammeter connected in series. An ammeter has very small resistance.

Current values around a simple circuit

The current is the same at all points around a simple circuit.

Ohm’s law and Resistance
Ohm carried out experiments with different metal wires to discover how the current through each
depended on the p.d. applied across its ends.
Components resist a current flowing through them. The bigger their resistance, the smaller the current
produced by a particular voltage, or the bigger the voltage needed to produce a particular current.

The p.d. across a component in a circuit is measured in volts (V) using a voltmeter connected across
(in parallel with) the component.

The current flowing through a component in a circuit is measured in amperes (A) using an ammeter
connected in series with the component.

Ohm's Law: The current flowing through a metal conductor is directly

proportional to the p.d. across its ends provided the temperature and
other physical conditions remain constant.

If a conductor obeys Ohm's Law, the current will increase in proportion to

the voltage. If you double the voltage, the current will also double. It is
assumed that a wire or a resistor obey Ohm’s law at low temperature.

Components that do not obey Ohm's Law

Some devices work in slightly different ways.

Filament Lamp

Filament lamps give off light because the metal filament in

the bulb becomes hot and glows brightly. As the filament gets
hot, its electrical resistance increases. An increase in resistance limits the
current flowing in the filament.

Thermistor

Thermistors have a lower resistance at higher temperatures.

They let more current flow through them at higher
temperatures because they release electrons.

LDR Light Dependent Resistor

Light dependent resistors have lower resistance when there is more light.

Diode

A diode lets the current flow one way only, in the direction of
the arrow. This means that it has a low resistance when the
current is flowing in the direction of the arrow, but a very
high resistance when the current tries to flow the other way.
Resistance

Resistance is defined by the following equation:

p . d . across the component (V )
Resistance ( Ω) =
Current through the component ( A)

V =I × R
A conductor has a resistance of 1Ω if a current of 1A flows through it when a p.d. of 1V is applied
across its ends.
The current through a resistor (at constant temperature) is proportional to the voltage across the
resistor.
The resistance of a conductor increases
 as the temperature of the conductor increases.
 as the thickness of the conductor decreases
 as the length of the conductor increases

Series and Parallel Circuits

Combined resistance of resistors in series:

If two or more resistors are connected in series, they give

a higher resistance than any one of the resistors by itself.

Combined resistance of resistors in parallel:

If two or more resistors are connected in parallel, they give

a lower resistance than any one of the resistors by itself.

Cells in series:

Groups of cells connected together are known as batteries.

When cells are connected in series the charge passes through
each cell gaining potential energy from each one.

Cells in Parallel:

The charge in the circuit can only pass through one cell. The
advantage of this arrangement is that the cells will last longer
before going flat.
Energy and Charge

When charge passes through a component (e.g. a resistor) it gives off energy that can be used to do a
useful job of work (e.g. heat up some water). If 1 coulomb of charge goes through a resistor which
has a p.d. of 1 volt across it, it gives of 1 joule of energy.

We can write this as an equation:

energy transformed( joule , J )= potential difference(volt , V )× charge(coulomb , C)

E (J )
V (V )=
Q(C)

Thus voltage is also known as the energy transmitted by a component per unit of charge. The volt is
thus the same as a joule per coulomb.

1V = 1J/C

DANGER!

Common Electrical safety rules: Most safety rules for the use of electricity in the
home are common sense but it is always good to be reminded of them. When you
read this list think about why each rule is important.

 Don’t remove a plug from a power point by pulling on the cord; pull the plug instead.
 Never plug adaptors into adaptors and avoid using adaptors filled with plugs where possible.
 Switch off electrical items that are not in regular use at the plug and ensure that when we are away
from the house for any length of time that you unplug and switch off electrical items as items left
plugged in can be a fire risk and waste energy if left on standby.
 Do not use any electrical items in the bathroom unless specifically designed for use there, eg.
Shavers and electric toothbrushes. Even with these items however, take care
not to get wet and avoid plugging and unplugging with wet hands.
 Do not use items with damaged cords so that the wires are exposed. Either
repair or replace. Check items regularly.
 Always turn the electrics off at the mains if carrying out any electrical repairs
and only attempt repairs if you know what you are doing.
 Do not have long cables trailing across a room.
 Do not push metal objects into wall sockets or toasters
AC and DC

The electricity we get from a plug is called alternating current (a.c.).  The electricity we get from a
battery is called direct current (d.c.).
 
Mains electricity is supplied to homes in Europe at 230 V a.c. at 50 Hz. 

d.c. voltage does not change at all.  Its direction is constant;

The a.c. voltage is constantly changing from positive to negative.  So its direction is changing all the
time.   It does this 50 times a second, so its frequency is 50 Hz.
The time for one complete wave is 1/50th (0.02 seconds or 20 milliseconds [ms]). 

Safety with Mains Electricity

Mains electricity can be dangerous.  The very
least you can expect from touching a live wire
is a severe jolt.  If you are sweaty, you can get
a severe burn, or even be killed.  Big currents
heat up wires, so it's essential to have safety
features built in.

Wiring a Plug

Most appliances are connected to the mains by

a plug that is inserted into a socket.  On the
continent, the pattern of plug is different to that
in the UK.  We will concentrate on the UK
pattern, which is also found in Ireland, and many other countries, e.g. Iraq.
 
The standard three-pin plug is wired like this:
 
Note the following:
 The live wire is brown.
 The neutral wire is blue.
 The earth wire is green and yellow.  The two colours are
used for the benefit of people who are colour-blind and
may wire a plug wrong as a result, leading to shock.
 There is a cord grip to keep the cable secure.
 Three core cable has three insulated conductors
surrounded by a sleeve. Two core cable has live and
neutral wires, but no earth.
 The cable has a sleeve to provide an extra layer of
insulation.

The correct wiring of a plug is most important.  Badly wired plugs can lead to bad electrical
accidents.  It is important to:
 place the correct wire to the right pin;
 ensure the cord grip is gripping the cable sleeve;
 avoid exposed conductors;
 make sure that there are no slits in the insulation of the wires.  This can easily happen when
cutting back the sleeve with a sharp knife.
 Use proper wire cutters and strippers; don't use scissors, kitchen knives, or your teeth.
 
Many appliances now have moulded plugs put on at the factory.  These are safer.
 
Fuses
Mains plugs have a fuse in them.  There is also another fuse or circuit breaker in the fuse box.  A short
circuit or other fault in an appliance can make too big a current flow, which can melt wires or even set
them on fire.
 
Plugging too many appliances into the same socket can also overload the socket,
making it hot. 
 
A fuse is a weak point in the circuit that gets hot and melts if the current gets too big. 
By melting it turns off the current.  A fuse blowing indicates that an appliance has a
fault.  Do not be tempted to open up an appliance for yourself.  Take it to a professional.

Modern electrical installations have circuit breakers instead of fuses in the fuse
box.  If these trip in the case of too big a current, they can be easily reset.  This is
much easier than replacing a fuse.

Earthing the Appliance

 
If a fault occurs where the live wire connects to the case, the earth
wire, which is connected to the case of the appliance, allows a
large current to flow through the live and earth wires. This
overheats the fuse which melts and breaks the circuit.

Appliances such as hairdryers are said to be 'double insulated' and

there's no need for an earth wire because the case is made of a non-
conducting plastic. If a faulty live wire touches the inside of the
plastic case, there's little risk as the case is an insulator.  The
symbol for a double insulated appliance is shown on the right:

Power of an Appliance

The power of an appliance is how much energy it transforms every second.  For example, an electric
drill converts 500 joules every second into kinetic energy.
 
The units for power are watts (W) or kilowatts (kW) where: 1 W = 1 J/s and 1 kW = 1000 W
 
The equation for electrical power is: power ( W ) =current ( A ) × voltage(V )          
P=I ×V

 Choosing the Right Fuse for an Appliance

Domestic appliances are connected to the mains by means of a fused plug. Remember that a fuse is a
weak link that melts when the appliance takes too big a current.  The BS1362 fuses are available in
the following sizes: 1 A, 2 A, 3 A – common, 5 A – common, 7 A, 10 A – common, 13 A - very
common

Plugs are mostly supplied with a 13 A fuse, and most people don't bother replacing the fuse with one
of the correct value.  This can be dangerous for the following reason.  Suppose we have an appliance
that takes 250 W from the mains.  Its current would be 1.1 A.  Suppose it developed a fault that
made it take 750 W.  Its current would now be 3.3 A.  There would be 500 W being used to heat the
appliance up.

What do you think would happen to the appliance?  It will get hot, and might catch fire
If there were a 13 A fuse, would it blow?  The fuse would not blow because the current is not
enough 
If there were a 3 A fuse, would it blow? The fuse would blow because the current is greater than
its rating
 
The result of using a 13 A fuse to protect a 1.1 A appliance could be disastrous.
 
There are three steps in working out the fuse value for an appliance:
 Calculate the current from the power.  Current = power ÷ 230 V
 Look at the fuse values in the BS1362 series.
 Choose the next highest value above your current.

If your current worked out to be 5 A, you wouldn't choose the 5 A fuse, as it would keep blowing. 
You would choose the 7 A fuse.

 
Energy, Current, Voltage and Time
   Energy transferred ( J )=voltage(V )× current (A )× time(s)
E=V × I ×t

Static Electricity can be described as "electricity at rest".  You will have discovered static electricity
for yourself when taking off your school jumper on a very cold, dry day. 
 
Static electricity occurs in insulating materials (materials that do not conduct electricity), and arises
due to the separation of charge. Current electricity flows in conducting materials (e.g. metals).
  
How is static electricity made?
You will remember how in atoms there is a positively charged
nucleus with protons and neutrons in it.  Surrounding the
nucleus there are electrons that are negatively charged.  If an
electron is removed from the atom, the atom is positively
charged.  If an electron is added to the atom it gets
negatively charged.
 
Let's suppose we rub a polythene rod with a cloth:

Electrons from the cloth are rubbed onto the polythene rod. This gives the rod a negative charge and
leaves the cloth with a positive charge.
 
When a cellulose acetate rod is rubbed with a cloth, the cloth rubs electrons off the rod leaving the
rod with a positive charge and the cloth with a negative charge.

If we hang the rods so that they can swing freely, we observe the following:
A charged polythene rod brought close to another charged polythene rod repels;
A charged acetate rod brought close to another charged acetate rod repels;
A charged polythene rod brought close to another charged acetate polythene rod attracts;
We can conclude from this simple experiment that:
 
like charges repel; unlike charges attract.
 
Static Electricity can be Dangerous
Aeroplanes are expensive machines to run.  They use huge amounts of fuel. 
A Jumbo Jet needs about 80 tonnes of fuel.  They only earn money when they
are flying, so it's important to get the fuel on board as quickly as possible.  However rapid pumping of
liquid fuel can result in a massive static charge building up that will lead to a spark.   
Therefore, a static discharge line is placed between the aeroplane and the pump to conduct the charge
to earth.  The same danger can occur when powders are pumped at high speed.
Lightning is caused by static charges. Lightning is the ultimate display of static electricity.  The heat
of the ground causes moist air to rise.  As it gets colder the higher up you go, ice forms, and as ice
particles bump into each other, a separation of charge occurs. The charges separate.  The positive
charges go to the top of the cloud.  The negative charges are at the bottom of the cloud.  They induce
positive charges in the ground by repelling electrons into the ground, leaving the positives where they
are.
 
If the potential difference gets big enough, a spark will jump.  The voltage is about 20 billion volts
and the current about 20 000 amps.  Fortunately, the spark only lasts for about 1/1000th of a second.
 
The energy can set fire to things, boil the sap in trees to make them explode,
or kill a person who is struck (many people do survive though).  The intense
heating of the air results in a loud bang, the echoes of which give the
distinctive rumbling sound of thunder.

A tall building is protected by a lightning conductor consisting of a thick

copper strip on the outside of the building connecting a metal spike at the top
to a metal plate in the ground. If there is a lightning flash, then the conductor
gives it an easy path to ground.
Earth
plate

 Electrostatic charges can be useful in everyday life. For example, in a photocopier:

1. copying plate is electrically charged;
2. an image of the page you want to copy is projected on
to the plate; where light fall on the plate, the electrical
charge leaks away;
3. The surface is covered with negatively charged black
powder. It is attracted to the positively charged image area
making a visible image.
4. A piece of plain paper is placed over the surface
and given a positive charge.
5. The negatively charged powder image on the
surface is attracted to the positively charged paper.
6. The powder image is fused to the paper by heat.

When printing with an inkjet printer:

1. tiny droplets of ink are electrically charged

as they are forced out of a very fine nozzle;
2. the droplets pass between metal plates
across which a voltage can be applied so that
one plate is negative and the other plate is
positive;
3. the charged droplets of ink are attracted
towards the plate with the opposite charge
and away from the plate with the same
charge. This means that they are deflected as they pass between the plates;
3. the size and direction of the voltage applied across the plates is controlled so that each droplet in
turn is deflected to a particular place on the paper;
4. each droplet of ink produces a tiny dot on the paper and many such dots, each in exactly the right
place, produce the printed characters.
Coal fired power stations produce huge amounts of ash, much of which goes up the chimney.  Dust
precipitators remove the vast majority of this.  The plates are periodically struck by heavy mechanical
hammers and the dust falls off into bins.