Physics 0625 Current electricity

Electric current:
An electric current consists of moving electric charges.
In a metal, each atom has one or more loosely held electrons that are free to move. When a battery is
connected across the ends of such a conductor, the free electrons drift slowly along it in the direction
from the negative to the positive terminal of a battery. There is then a current of negative charge.

The free electrons are called conduction electrons (see Figure). A voltage, such as that provided by a
battery or power supply, can start these
conduction electrons moving in one
direction through the metal, and an
electric current flow.
Since electrons have a negative electric
charge, they are attracted to the positive
terminal of the battery.

Conventional current:
Electric current flows from positive to negative.
Figure shows the direction of flow of charge
around a simple circuit.
We picture positive charge flowing out of the
positive terminal, around the circuit and back into
the cell at the negative terminal.
Now, we know that in a metal it is the negatively
charged electrons that move.
They leave the negative terminal of the cell, and flow around to the positive terminal, in the opposite
direction to the current. Hence we have two different pictures of what is going on in a circuit.

conventional current, is the direction in which positive charges would flow.

Electrons flow in the opposite direction to the conventional current.
Electric Current: The rate 0f flow of electric charges through a point in a circuit.
In other words, the amount of charge that passes per second.
Unit of electric Current: The ampere (shortened to amp) is the SI unit of current.
Smaller currents may be measured in milliamps (mA) or microamps (μA)

1 milliamp = 1 mA = 0.001 A = 10−3 A

1 microamp = 1 μA = 0.000 001 A = 10−6 A

The ampere and the coulomb:

The unit of current is the ampere (A) which is defined using the magnetic effect.
One milliampere (mA) is one-thousandth of an ampere.

The unit of charge, the coulomb (C), is defined in terms of the ampere.
“One coulomb is the charge passing any point in a circuit when a steady current of 1 ampere flows for 1
second”.
That is, 1 C = 1 A s.

A charge of 3 C would pass each point in 1 s if the current were 3 A. In 2 s, 3 A × 2 s = 6 A s = 6 C would

pass. In general, if a steady current I (amperes) flows for time t (seconds) the charge Q (coulombs)
passing any point is given by
Q=I×t

Effects of a current:
a) Heating and lighting effect
The lamp lights because the small wire inside (the filament) is made white hot by the current.

b) Magnetic effect
The plotting compass is deflected when it is placed near the wire because a magnetic field is produced
around any wire carrying a current.

c) Chemical effect
Bubbles of gas are given off at the wires in the acid because of the chemical action of the current.
Measuring electric current
To measure electric current, we use an ammeter. There are two types, as shown in Figure.

• An analogue meter has a needle, which moves across a scale. With this type of meter, it is easy
to see when the current flowing is increasing or decreasing. You have to make a judgement of the
position of the needle against the scale.
• A digital meter gives a direct read-out in figures. There is no judgement involved in taking a reading.
Data-loggers and personal computers use digital data.
An ammeter is connected into a circuit in series – that is to say, the current flows in through one
terminal (red, positive) and out through the other (black, negative). If the meter is connected the wrong
way round, it will give negative readings.

Potential Difference (p.d.):

The potential difference across a circuit component is the work done to drive a unit charge through the
circuit component.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒

𝐸
𝑉=
𝑞
Unit of potential difference:

Unit of electric potential is “volt”.

The p.d. between two points in a circuit is 1 volt if 1 joule of electrical energy is transferred to other
forms of energy when 1 coulomb passes from one point to the other.
Potential difference is another term for voltage, and is measured in volts.

It indicates that there is a difference in electrical potential across the resistor.

This is rather like the difference in height that makes a ball roll downhill.

That is, 1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb (1 V = 1 J/C).

If 2 J are given up by each coulomb, the p.d. is 2 V.
If 6 J are transferred when 2 C pass, the p.d. is 6 J/2 C = 3 V.

A battery transforms chemical energy to electrical energy. Because of the chemical action going on

inside it, it builds up a surplus of electrons at one of its terminals (the negative) and creates a shortage at

the other (the positive). It is then able to maintain a flow of electrons, i.e. an electric current, in any

circuit connected across its terminals for as long as the chemical action lasts.

The battery is said to have a potential difference (p.d. for short) at its terminals. Potential difference

is measured in volts (V) and the term voltage is sometimes used instead of p.d.

The p.d. of a car battery is 12 V and the domestic mains supply is 220 V or 230 V.

Energy transfers and p.d.:

In an electric circuit electrical energy is supplied from a source such as a battery and is transferred to other forms
of energy by devices in the circuit. A lamp produces heat and light.

It may help you to understand the definition of

the volt, i.e. what a volt is,
if you imagine that the current
in a circuit is formed by ‘drops’ of electricity, each
having a charge of 1 coulomb and carrying
equalsized ‘bundles’ of electrical energy.
In Figure 37.2, Mr Coulomb represents one such ‘drop’. As a ‘drop’ moves around the circuit it gives up
all its energy which is changed to other forms of energy.
Note that
electrical energy, not charge or current, is ‘used up’.

The work done when charge Q (coulombs) passes between two points, the p.d. V (volts) between
the points is given by
V = E/Q
or E=Q×V
If Q is in the form of a steady current I (amperes) flowing for time t (seconds)
then Q = I × t
and
E=I×t×V

Cells in series and parallel:

A ‘battery’ consists of two or more
electric cells.
Greater voltages are obtained when cells are joined in series, i.e. + of one to – of next.

In Figure the two 1.5 V cells give a voltage of 3 V at the terminals A, B. Every coulomb in a circuit
connected to this battery will have 3 J of electrical energy.

The cells in next Figure are in opposition and the

voltage at X, Y is zero.

If two 1.5 V cells are connected in parallel, as in

Figure,
the voltage at terminals P, Q is still
1.5 V but the arrangement behaves like a larger cell
and will last longer.
Electromotive force (e.m.f.)

The p.d. at the terminals of a battery decreases slightly when current is drawn from it. This effect is

due to the internal resistance of the battery which transfers electrical energy to heat as current

flows through it.

The greater the current drawn, the larger the ‘lost’ voltage.

When no current is drawn from a battery it is said to be an ‘open circuit’ and its terminal p.d. is a

maximum.

This maximum voltage is termed the electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the battery.

Like potential difference, e.m.f. is measured in volts and can be written as

e.m.f. = ‘lost’ volts + terminal p.d.

In energy terms, the e.m.f. is defined as the number of joules of chemical energy transferred to

electrical energy and heat when one coulomb of charge passes through the battery (or cell).

Definition of electromotive force:

The electromotive force of a d.c. source is the work done by the source to drive a unit charge round a
closed circuit.
Or

e.m.f. is defined as the energy supplied by a source in driving unit charge round a
complete circuit
or
The energy supplied by the cell to drive 1.0 C of charge around a complete circuit
Potential Difference and Electromotive Force:
Although potential difference is related to energy, strictly speaking it is defined as the amount of
electrical energy dissipated by a unit charge when it moves between two points in a circuit.

A p.d. of 1 volt between two points means that a charge of 1 coulomb will dissipate 1 joule of energy
when it moves between them.

An EMF is also a difference in potential but it causes the current to flow.

For the EMF, W would be electrical work done on the charge by the supply
(i.e. energy supplied) instead of a measure of work done by the charge on a component (i.e. energy
dissipated).

Remember p.d. is relative: two points that are at 10,000 and 9998V and two points that are at 4 and 2V
both have p.d.s of 2V across them.

A bird standing on a high voltage power line does not get electrocuted as both its feet are at the same,
albeit very high potential. If there is no p.d. then no current flows and it survives to fly another day.
When dealing with circuits we are able define one point - usually the negative terminal of the battery
-as having 0V potential and then measure all other potentials relative to this.

Remember current is a flow and therefore is always through something.

Potential difference is a difference between two points and is therefore always across something.
Problem1:
Problem 2:

Resistance:

Electrons move more easily through some conductors than others when a p.d. is applied.

The opposition of a conductor to current is called its resistance.

A good conductor has a low resistance and a poor conductor has a high resistance.

1. Definition of resistance:

The ratio of potential difference (V) across the conductor to the current (I) flowing through it.

𝑽
R= 𝑰

–1
R is resistance of conductor (unit: Ω, equivalent unit: 1 Ω = 1 V A )
V is potential difference across the conductor (unit: V)

I is current through the conductor (unit: A)

What is an ohm?
𝑽
Let us think about the equation R= 𝑰

that defines what we mean by resistance.

We can see that it takes a p.d. of 10 V to make a current of 1 A flow through a 10 Ω resistor.
It takes 20 V to make 1 A flow through a 20 Ω resistor, and so on.
Hence resistance (in Ω) tells us how many volts are needed to make 1 A flow through that resistor.
To put it another way: one ohm is one volt per amp 1 Ω = 1 V/A

The ohm is the resistance of a conductor in which the current is 1 ampere when a voltage of 1 volt is
applied across it.
However, we can make a bigger current flow by increasing the p.d. that pushes it.
A bigger p.d. produces a bigger current.
Worked example 1
A voltmeter placed across a resistor reads 30 V and an ammeter in series reads 0.6 A.

Calculate the resistance.

Solution: R=V/I

R = 300/6 = 50Ω

Dependence of Resistance on Length and area of a conductor:

We have seen that the resistance of a wire depends on its length and diameter. In fact, it is

the cross-sectional area of the wire that matters.

 • The resistance of a wire is proportional to its length.

• The resistance of a wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.

Suppose that we have a 4.0 m length of wire. Its resistance is 100 Ω. What will be the

resistance of a 2.0 m length of wire with twice the cross-sectional area? (Notice that

making the wire shorter will reduce its resistance, and increasing its area will also reduce

its resistance.)

Half the length gives half the resistance = 50 Ω

Doubling the area halves the resistance again = 25 Ω

Worked example 2
A wire of resistance 10 Ω is cut into quarters. What is the resistance of each quarter?
Solution:
The length of the wire is reduced by a factor of four, and so is the resistance:

R = 10/4 = 2.5Ω
• Resistance is directly proportional to the length of a wire.

• Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of a wire.

Worked example 3
A piece of conducting putty has a resistance of 12 Ω. More putty is added to increase

the cross-sectional area by a factor of 3. What is the new resistance?

Solution:

Cross-sectional area increases by three times, and so the resistance reduces by a

factor of 3:

R = 12/3

= 4Ω
Practical
Aim
To find the resistance of a component using a voltmeter and an ammeter.
Safety
A full risk assessment must be carried out before starting this practical.
Summary of method
1. Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 2. Use a resistor or a length of
conducting wire

2. Gradually increase the voltage from the power supply. Begin with 1 V and increase
it by 1 V up to a maximum of 8 V. Do not touch the wire, it will get hot. Turn off the
power supply between readings.

3. Draw up a results table and record the voltage readings on the voltmeter and the
corresponding values of current on the ammeter.
4. Plot a graph with voltage, V, on the x-axis and current, I, on the y-axis.

5. Calculate the resistance of the resistor or wire by finding the inverse of the
gradient.

Results

Your results table should look something like Table 1.

A successful graph would look like Figure 3.

Extended

Ohm's Law and I–V graphs:

You can describe how a component behaves by looking at its current–voltage graph

(Figure 3 and Figure 4). In I–V graphs, the current and voltage are plotted for both
positive and negative values. Negative current and/or voltage is achieved by

changing the direction of the battery.

Resistor or wire

Description

A graph of current vs. voltage for a wire or resistor shows that values of I and V are

directly proportional. If the voltage doubles, the current also doubles.

Explanation

The current and voltage are directly proportional because resistance is constant. A

wire or resistor is therefore an ohmic device when temperature is constant.

The resistance can be calculated using:

𝑉
R=
𝐼
Filament lamp

Description

The I–V graph for a filament lamp shows that for low values, current and voltage are

directly proportional. However, when a large voltage is applied, there is only a small

increase in current.

Explanation

A flow of current causes the wire in a filament lamp to heat up. As the atoms gain

kinetic energy, collisions with electrons become more frequent. This cause

the resistance to increase, so the current and voltage are not directly proportional. A

filament lamp is an example of a non-ohmic device.

Electrical working
What is electrical power?
Power
is a measure of how quickly energy is transferred. The unit of power is the watt (W), defined as 1 joule per
second.
While mechanical power is concerned with force, distance, energy or time
(see subtopic 1.7), electrical power is concerned with voltage, current, resistance,
energy, charge or time.
In the case of electrical power, the original energy source is the battery. Each
component in a circuit transfers that energy into alternative forms. For example, a
heater turns electrical energy into heat energy and a motor turns electrical energy
into kinetic energy. Power is said to have been

dissipated
in the device when its energy is transferred to its surroundings, usually in the form of heat.

Extended

The equations
Electrical power can be calculated using the equation:

P=IV
where:

• P is the power in watts (joules per second)

• I is the current in amps (charge per unit of time)
• V is the p.d. in volts (energy per unit of charge).