Unit I-Basic electricity principles

All materials are made up from atoms, and all atoms consist of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons, have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical charge while Electrons,
have a negative electrical charge. Atoms are bound together by powerful forces of attraction
existing between the atoms nucleus and the electrons in its outer shell.

When these protons, neutrons and electrons are together within the atom they are happy and
stable. But if we separate them from each other they want to reform and start to exert a potential
of attraction called a potential difference.

Now if we create a closed circuit these loose electrons will start to move and drift back to the
protons due to their attraction creating a flow of electrons. This flow of electrons is called an
electrical current. The electrons do not flow freely through the circuit as the material they
move through creates a restriction to the electron flow. This restriction is called resistance.

Then all basic electrical or electronic circuits consist of three separate but very much related
electrical quantities called: Voltage, ( v ), Current, ( i ) and Resistance, ( Ω ).

Electrical Voltage

Voltage, ( V ) is the potential energy of an electrical supply stored in the form of an electrical
charge. Voltage can be thought of as the force that pushes electrons through a conductor and
the greater the voltage the greater is its ability to “push” the electrons through a given circuit.
As energy has the ability to do work this potential energy can be described as the work required
in joules to move electrons in the form of an electrical current around a circuit from one point
or node to another.

Then the difference in voltage between any two points, connections or junctions (called nodes)
in a circuit is known as the Potential Difference, ( p.d. ) commonly called the Voltage Drop.

The Potential difference between two points is measured in Volts with the circuit symbol V,
or lowercase “v“, although Energy, E lowercase “e” is sometimes used to indicate a generated
emf (electromotive force). Then the greater the voltage, the greater is the pressure (or pushing
force) and the greater is the capacity to do work.

A constant voltage source is called a DC Voltage with a voltage that varies periodically with
time is called an AC voltage. Voltage is measured in volts, with one volt being defined as the
electrical pressure required to force an electrical current of one ampere through a resistance of
one Ohm. Voltages are generally expressed in Volts with prefixes used to denote sub-multiples
of the voltage such as microvolts ( μV = 10-6 V ), millivolts ( mV = 10-3 V ) or kilovolts ( kV
= 103 V ). Voltage can be either positive or negative.

Batteries or power supplies are mostly used to produce a steady D.C. (direct current) voltage
source such as 5v, 12v, 24v etc in electronic circuits and systems. While A.C. (alternating
current) voltage sources are available for domestic house and industrial power and lighting as
well as power transmission. The mains voltage supply in the United Kingdom is currently 230
volts a.c. and 110 volts a.c. in the USA.
General electronic circuits operate on low voltage DC battery supplies of between 1.5V and
24V dc The circuit symbol for a constant voltage source usually given as a battery symbol with
a positive, + and negative, – sign indicating the direction of the polarity. The circuit symbol for
an alternating voltage source is a circle with a sine wave inside.

Voltage Symbols

A simple relationship can be made between a tank of water and a voltage supply. The higher
the water tank above the outlet the greater the pressure of the water as more energy is released,
the higher the voltage the greater the potential energy as more electrons are released.

Voltage is always measured as the difference between any two points in a circuit and the
voltage between these two points is generally referred to as the “Voltage drop“. Note that
voltage can exist across a circuit without current, but current cannot exist without voltage and
as such any voltage source whether DC or AC likes an open or semi-open circuit condition but
hates any short circuit condition as this can destroy it.

Electrical Current

Electrical Current, ( I ) is the movement or flow of electrical charge and is measured in

Amperes, symbol i, for intensity). It is the continuous and uniform flow (called a drift) of
electrons (the negative particles of an atom) around a circuit that are being “pushed” by the
voltage source. In reality, electrons flow from the negative (-ve) terminal to the positive (+ve)
terminal of the supply and for ease of circuit understanding conventional current flow assumes
that the current flows from the positive to the negative terminal.

Generally in circuit diagrams the flow of current through the circuit usually has an arrow
associated with the symbol, I, or lowercase i to indicate the actual direction of the current flow.
However, this arrow usually indicates the direction of conventional current flow and not
necessarily the direction of the actual flow.

Conventional Current Flow

Conventionally this is the flow of positive charge around a circuit, being positive to negative.
The diagram at the left shows the movement of the positive charge (holes) around a closed
circuit flowing from the positive terminal of the battery, through the circuit and returns to the
negative terminal of the battery. This flow of current from positive to negative is generally
known as conventional current flow.

This was the convention chosen during the discovery of electricity in which the direction of
electric current was thought to flow in a circuit. To continue with this line of thought, in all
circuit diagrams and schematics, the arrows shown on symbols for components such as diodes
and transistors point in the direction of conventional current flow.

Then Conventional Current Flow gives the flow of electrical current from positive to negative
and which is the opposite in direction to the actual flow of electrons.

Electron Flow

The flow of electrons around the circuit is opposite to the direction of the conventional current
flow being negative to positive.The actual current flowing in an electrical circuit is composed
of electrons that flow from the negative pole of the battery (the cathode) and return back to the
positive pole (the anode) of the battery.

This is because the charge on an electron is negative by definition and so is attracted to the
positive terminal. This flow of electrons is called Electron Current Flow. Therefore, electrons
actually flow around a circuit from the negative terminal to the positive.

Both conventional current flow and electron flow are used by many textbooks. In fact, it makes
no difference which way the current is flowing around the circuit as long as the direction is
used consistently. The direction of current flow does not affect what the current does within
the circuit. Generally it is much easier to understand the conventional current flow – positive
to negative.

In electronic circuits, a current source is a circuit element that provides a specified amount of
current for example, 1A, 5A 10 Amps etc, with the circuit symbol for a constant current source
given as a circle with an arrow inside indicating its direction.

Current is measured in Amps and an amp or ampere is defined as the number of electrons or
charge (Q in Coulombs) passing a certain point in the circuit in one second, (t in Seconds).

Electrical current is generally expressed in Amps with prefixes used to denote micro amps
( μA = 10-6A ) or milliamps ( mA = 10-3A ). Note that electrical current can be either positive
in value or negative in value depending upon its direction of flow.
Current that flows in a single direction is called Direct Current, or D.C. and current that
alternates back and forth through the circuit is known as Alternating Current, or A.C..
Whether AC or DC current only flows through a circuit when a voltage source is connected to
it with its “flow” being limited to both the resistance of the circuit and the voltage source
pushing it.

Also, as alternating currents (and voltages) are periodic and vary with time the “effective” or
“RMS”, (Root Mean Squared) value given as Irms produces the same average power loss
equivalent to a DC current Iaverage . Current sources are the opposite to voltage sources in that
they like short or closed circuit conditions but hate open circuit conditions as no current will
flow.

Using the tank of water relationship, current is the equivalent of the flow of water through the
pipe with the flow being the same throughout the pipe. The faster the flow of water the greater
the current. Note that current cannot exist without voltage so any current source whether DC
or AC likes a short or semi-short circuit condition but hates any open circuit condition as this
prevents it from flowing.

Resistance

Resistance, ( R ) is the capacity of a material to resist or prevent the flow of current or, more
specifically, the flow of electric charge within a circuit. The circuit element which does this
perfectly is called the “Resistor”.

Resistance is a circuit element measured in Ohms, Greek symbol ( Ω, Omega ) with prefixes
used to denote Kilo-ohms ( kΩ = 103Ω ) and Mega-ohms ( MΩ = 106Ω ). Note that resistance
cannot be negative in value only positive.

Resistor Symbols

The amount of resistance a resistor has is determined by the relationship of the current through
it to the voltage across it which determines whether the circuit element is a “good conductor”
– low resistance, or a “bad conductor” – high resistance. Low resistance, for example 1Ω or
less implies that the circuit is a good conductor made from materials such as copper, aluminium
or carbon while a high resistance, 1MΩ or more implies the circuit is a bad conductor made
from insulating materials such as glass, porcelain or plastic.

A “semiconductor” on the other hand such as silicon or germanium, is a material whose

resistance is half way between that of a good conductor and a good insulator. Hence the name
“semi-conductor”. Semiconductors are used to make Diodes and Transistors etc.
Resistance can be linear or non-linear in nature. Linear resistance obeys Ohm’s Law as the
voltage across the resistor is linearly proportional to the current through it. Non-linear
resistance, does not obey Ohm’s Law but has a voltage drop across it that is proportional to
some power of the current.

Resistance is pure and is not affected by frequency with the AC impedance of a resistance
being equal to its DC resistance and as a result can not be negative. Remember that resistance
is always positive, and never negative.

A resistor is classed as a passive circuit element and as such cannot deliver power or store
energy. Instead resistors absorbed power that appears as heat and light. Power in a resistance
is always positive regardless of voltage polarity and current direction.

For very low values of resistance, for example milli-ohms, ( mΩ´s ) it is sometimes much easier
to use the reciprocal of resistance ( 1/R ) rather than resistance ( R ) itself. The reciprocal of
resistance is called Conductance, symbol ( G ) and represents the ability of a conductor or
device to conduct electricity.

In other words the ease by which current flows. High values of conductance implies a good
conductor such as copper while low values of conductance implies a bad conductor such as
wood. The standard unit of measurement given for conductance is the Siemen, symbol (S).

The unit used for conductance is mho (ohm spelled backward), which is symbolized by an
inverted Ohm sign ℧. Power can also be expressed using conductance as: p = i2/G = v2G.

The relationship between Voltage, ( v ) and Current, ( i ) in a circuit of constant Resistance,

( R ) would produce a straight line i-v relationship with slope equal to the value of the resistance
as shown.
Voltage, Current and Resistance Summary

Hopefully by now you should have some idea of how electrical Voltage, Current and
Resistance are closely related together. The relationship between Voltage, Current and
Resistance forms the basis of Ohm’s law. In a linear circuit of fixed resistance, if we increase
the voltage, the current goes up, and similarly, if we decrease the voltage, the current goes
down. This means that if the voltage is high the current is high, and if the voltage is low the
current is low.

Likewise, if we increase the resistance, the current goes down for a given voltage and if we
decrease the resistance the current goes up. Which means that if resistance is high current is
low and if resistance is low current is high.

Then we can see that current flow around a circuit is directly proportional ( ∝ ) to voltage,
( V↑ causes I↑ ) but inversely proportional ( 1/∝ ) to resistance as, ( R↑ causes I↓ ).

A basic summary of the three units is given below.

• Voltage or potential difference is the measure of potential energy between two points
in a circuit and is commonly referred to as its ” volt drop “.
• When a voltage source is connected to a closed loop circuit the voltage will produce a
current flowing around the circuit.
• In DC voltage sources the symbols +ve (positive) and -ve (negative) are used to denote
the polarity of the voltage supply.
• Voltage is measured in ” Volts ” and has the symbol ” V ” for voltage or ” E ” for
energy.
• Current flow is a combination of electron flow and hole flow through a circuit.
• Current is the continuous and uniform flow of charge around the circuit and is measured
in ” Amperes ” or ” Amps ” and has the symbol ” I “.
• Current is Directly Proportional to Voltage ( I ∝ V )
• The effective (rms) value of an alternating current has the same average power loss
equivalent to a direct current flowing through a resistive element.
• Resistance is the opposition to current flowing around a circuit.
• Low values of resistance implies a conductor and high values of resistance implies an
insulator.
• Current is Inversely Proportional to Resistance ( I 1/∝ R )
• Resistance is measured in ” Ohms ” and has the Greek symbol ” Ω ” or the letter ” R “.

Unit of
Quantity Symbol Abbreviation
Measure
Voltage V or E Volt V
Current I Ampere A
Resistance R Ohms Ω

In the next tutorial about DC Circuits we will look at Ohms Law which is a mathematical
equation explaining the relationship between Voltage, Current, and Resistance within electrical
circuits and is the foundation of electronics and electrical engineering. Ohm’s Law is defined
as: V = I x R.
Electric Power (P): Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is
transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second.
Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by sources
such as electric batteries.

P= W/t = (VQ)/t = (V.I.t)/t = V.I = I2.R = V2/R

Where,

W work done by the charge

Q is electric charge in coulombs
t is time in seconds
I is electric current in amperes
V is electric potential or voltage in volts
R resistance in the circuit

In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and capacitance may
result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power flow that,
averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one
direction is known as real power (also referred to as active power). That portion of power flow
due to stored energy, which returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power.
The real power P in watts consumed by a device is given by

where

Vp is the peak voltage in volts

Ip is the peak current in amperes
Vrms is the root-mean-square voltage in volts
Irms is the root-mean-square current in amperes
θ is the phase angle between the current and voltage sine waves

Ohm's law:

In same physical conditions, Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between
two points is directly proportional to the voltage across the two points. Introducing the constant
of proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes
this relationship:

I=V/R

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the voltage measured
across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.
More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the
current.
Series, Parallel and Series-Parallel combinations:

Series Circuit:

Components of an electrical circuit or electronic circuit can be connected in many different

ways. The two simplest of these are called series and parallel and occur frequently.
Components connected in series are connected along a single path, so the same current flows
through all of the components. Components connected in parallel are connected, so the same
voltage is applied to each component.

A circuit composed solely of components connected in series is known as a series circuit;

likewise, one connected completely in parallel is known as a parallel circuit.

In a series circuit, the current through each of the components is the same, and the voltage
across the circuit is the sum of the voltages across each component. In a parallel circuit, the
voltage across each of the components is the same, and the total current is the sum of the
currents through each component.

Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled. The current in a
series circuit goes through every component in the circuit. Therefore, all of the components in
a series connection carry the same current. There is only one path in a series circuit in which
the current can flow.

A series circuit's main disadvantage or advantage, depending on its intended role in a

product's overall design, is that because there is only one path in which its current can flow,
opening or breaking a series circuit at any point causes the entire circuit to "open" or stop
operating. For example, if even one of the light bulbs in an older-style string of Christmas
tree lights burns out or is removed, the entire string becomes inoperable until the bulb is
replaced.

Current

In a series circuit the current is the same for all of elements.

Resistors

The total resistance of resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances:

Electrical conductance presents a reciprocal quantity to resistance. Total conductance of

series circuits of pure resistors, therefore, can be calculated from the following expression:

Inductors

Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in series
is equal to the sum of their individual inductances:

However, in some situations it is difficult to prevent adjacent inductors from influencing each
other, as the magnetic field of one device couples with the windings of its neighbours. This
influence is defined by the mutual inductance M. For example, if two inductors are in series,
there are two possible equivalent inductances depending on how the magnetic fields of both
inductors influence each other.

When there are more than two inductors, the mutual inductance between each of them and the
way the coils influence each other complicates the calculation. For a larger number of coils
the total combined inductance is given by the sum of all mutual inductances between the
various coils including the mutual inductance of each given coil with itself, which we term
self-inductance or simply inductance.

Capacitors

Capacitors follow the same law using the reciprocals. The total capacitance of capacitors in
series is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual capacitances:
 .

Switches

Two or more switches in series form a logical AND; the circuit only carries current if all
switches are closed. See AND gate.

Cells and batteries

A battery is a collection of electrochemical cells. If the cells are connected in series, the
voltage of the battery will be the sum of the cell voltages. For example, a 12 volt car battery
contains six 2-volt cells connected in series. Some vehicles, such as trucks, have two 12 volt
batteries in series to feed the 24 volt system.

Parallel Circuit

If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same potential difference
(voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across the components are the same in
magnitude, and they also have identical polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all
circuit components connected in parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through
the individual components, in accordance with Kirchhoff’s current law.

Voltage

In a parallel circuit the voltage is the same for all elements.

Current
The current in each individual resistor is found by Ohm's law. Factoring out the voltage gives

Resistors

To find the total resistance of all components, add the reciprocals of the resistances Ri of each
component and take the reciprocal of the sum. Total resistance will always be less than the
value of the smallest resistance:

For only two resistors, the unreciprocated expression is reasonably simple:

This sometimes goes by the mnemonic "product over sum".

For N equal resistors in parallel, the reciprocal sum expression simplifies to:

and therefore to:

To find the current in a component with resistance Ri, use Ohm's law again:

The components divide the current according to their reciprocal resistances, so, in the case of
two resistors,
An old term for devices connected in parallel is multiple, such as a multiple connection for
arc lamps.

Since electrical conductance G is reciprocal to resistance, the expression for total

conductance of a parallel circuit of resistors reads:

The relations for total conductance and resistance stand in a complementary relationship: the
expression for a series connection of resistances is the same as for parallel connection of
conductances, and vice versa.

Inductors

Inductors follow the same law, in that the total inductance of non-coupled inductors in
parallel is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of their individual inductances:

If the inductors are situated in each other's magnetic fields, this approach is invalid due to
mutual inductance. If the mutual inductance between two coils in parallel is M, the equivalent
inductor is:

If L1=L2

The sign of M depends on how the magnetic fields influence each other. For two equal tightly
coupled coils the total inductance is close to that of each single coil. If the polarity of one coil
is reversed so that M is negative, then the parallel inductance is nearly zero or the
combination is almost non-inductive. It is assumed in the "tightly coupled" case M is very
nearly equal to L. However, if the inductances are not equal and the coils are tightly coupled
there can be near short circuit conditions and high circulating currents for both positive and
negative values of M, which can cause problems.
Capacitors

The total capacitance of capacitors in parallel is equal to the sum of their individual
capacitances:

The working voltage of a parallel combination of capacitors is always limited by the smallest
working voltage of an individual capacitor.

Switches

Two or more switches in parallel form a logical OR; the circuit carries current if at least one
switch is closed. See OR gate.

Cells and batteries

If the cells of a battery are connected in parallel, the battery voltage will be the same as the
cell voltage but the current supplied by each cell will be a fraction of the total current. For
example, if a battery comprises four identical cells connected in parallel and delivers a
current of 1 ampere, the current supplied by each cell will be 0.25 ampere. Parallel-connected
batteries were widely used to power the valve filaments in portable radios but they are now
rare. Some solar electric systems have batteries in parallel to increase the storage capacity; a
close approximation of total amp-hours is the sum of all batteries in parallel.

Combining conductance’s
From Kirchhoff's circuit laws we can deduce the rules for combining conductances. For two
conductances G1 and G2 in parallel the voltage across them is the same and from Kirchhoff's
Current Law the total current is

Substituting Ohm's law for conductances gives

and the equivalent conductance will be,

For two conductances G1 and G2 in series the current through them will be the same and
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law tells us that the voltage across them is the sum of the voltages
across each conductance, that is,

Substituting Ohm's law for conductance then gives,

which in turn gives the formula for the equivalent conductance,

This equation can be rearranged slightly, though this is a special case that will only rearrange
like this for two components.

Series-parallel Combination: Examples

AC and DC Electricity:

Electricity flows in two ways: either in an alternating current (AC) or in a direct current
(DC). Electricity or "current" is nothing but the movement of electrons through a conductor,
like a wire. The difference between AC and DC lies in the direction in which the electrons
flow. In DC, the electrons flow steadily in a single direction, or "forward." In AC, electrons
keep switching directions, sometimes going "forward" and then going "backward."

Thus, Alternating current (AC), is an electric current in which the flow of electric charge
periodically reverses direction, whereas in direct current (DC, also dc), the flow of electric
charge is only in one direction. ... The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric
power circuits is a sine wave.

Alternating current is the best way to transmit electricity over large distances.

Comparison chart

Alternating Current versus Direct Current comparison chart

Alternating Current Direct Current

Amount of energy that Safe to transfer over longer city Voltage of DC cannot travel
can be carried distances and can provide more power. very far until it begins to lose
energy.

Cause of the direction Rotating magnet along the wire. Steady magnetism along the
of flow of electrons wire.

Frequency The frequency of alternating current is The frequency of direct current

50Hz or 60Hz depending upon the is zero.
country.

Direction It reverses its direction while flowing in It flows in one direction in the
a circuit. circuit.

Current It is the current of magnitude varying It is the current of constant

with time magnitude.

Flow of Electrons Electrons keep switching directions - Electrons move steadily in one
forward and backward. direction or 'forward'.

Obtained from A.C Generator and mains. Cell or Battery.

Passive Parameters Impedance. Resistance only

Power Factor Lies between 0 & 1. it is always 1.

Types Sinusoidal, Trapezoidal, Triangular, Pure and pulsating.

Square.
Contents: AC vs DC (Alternating Current vs Direct Current)

Alternating and Direct current. The horizontal axis is time and the vertical axis represents
voltage.

Origins of AC and DC current

A magnetic field near a wire causes electrons to flow in a single direction along the wire,
because they are repelled by the negative side of a magnet and attracted toward the positive
side. This is how DC power from a battery was born, primarily attributed to Thomas Edison's
work.

AC generators gradually replaced Edison's DC battery system because AC is safer to transfer

over the longer city distances and can provide more power. Instead of applying the magnetism
along the wire steadily, scientist Nikola Tesla used a rotating magnet. When the magnet was
oriented in one direction, the electrons flowed towards the positive, but when the magnet's
orientation was flipped, the electrons turned as well.

Video Comparing Alternating and Direct Current

Use of transformers with Alternating Current

Another difference between AC and DC involves the amount of energy it can carry. Each
battery is designed to produce only one voltage, and that voltage of DC cannot travel very far
until it begins to lose energy. But AC's voltage from a generator, in a power plant, can be
bumped up or down in strength by another mechanism called a transformer. Transformers are
located on the electrical pole on the street, not at the power plant. They change very high
voltage into a lower voltage appropriate for your home appliances, like lamps and refrigerators.

Storage and Conversion From AC to DC and Vice Versa

AC can even be changed to DC by an adapter that you might use to power the battery on your
laptop. DC can be "bumped" up or down, it is just a little more difficult. Inverters change DC
to AC. For example, for your car an inverter would change the 12 volt DC to 120 Volt AC to
run a small device. While DC can be stored in batteries, you cannot store AC.
Familiarization with Multimeter, Voltmeter and Ammeter

Multimeter is a very popular electronic measuring device. It is an essential equipment to

troubleshoot an electronic circuit.
Multimeter is used to measure various electrical quantities such as voltage , current and
resitance. It work in different modes namely ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter. The mode
can be set using a selector switch provided in the multimerer.

Both AC and DC voltages and current can be measured using Multimeter. They are available
in two types analog and digital. Analog multimeter have a needle moving over a caliberated
scale while the digital multimeter give the digital display of the measured quantities.

A digital multumeter is made from the basic digital voltmeter. For the measurment of current
, the voltage drop across a precision resistance is measured. DVM cam be converted to an
ohmmeter by using an accurate current source. It measures the voltage drop across the
resistance being measured.

Measurements Using analog multimeter

Zero adjustment of multimeter: Before the measurment are taken, make sure that the pointer
of the meter is at zero position of the scale. If the pointer is not on the zero position , bring th
pointer to.exact position by turning th screw located just below the scale window , using a
small srew driver.

DC and AC voltage measurement using multimeter

1. Insert the positive and negative test leads in appropriate grooves.

2. To measure DC voltage , set the rang selector switch to the prescribed DC voltage range.
Sililarly to measure AC voltage, set the range selector switch in AC voltage range.
For safety and accuracy , start with the highest range and work down by turning the range
selector switch to lower ranges.

Measurement of current

1. Insret the positive lead and negative test lead of the multimeter in proper places.

2. Selector switch should be set to prescribed range before connecting the multimeter in
series with the path of the current under measurement. Start taking values only after setting
the selector switch in the highest range. Fir accurate measurments work down to lower
ranges.

Measurement of resistance 1. Turn the range slector nob to Ω position. Then the pointer will
to the exreme left of dial indicating that the resistance if infinite. Then short the connecting
terminal together. The pointer will move to the right extreme where the resistance is marked
zero. If the ponter does not show zero resistance, turn the 'Ω adj' knob to make the pointer
read zero.
2. Connect the multimeter terminals to the resistor leads. The value of the resistance can be
read from the pointer position. Turn the range selector nob to the highest range of resistance
and then reduce to lower ranges to take the reading accurately.

Measurement using digital multumeter

DC and AC voltage measurement using DMM

1. Insert the positive and negative test leads in proper place.

2. Set the range selector switch to the DC V / AC V range under measurement is unknown,
set the range selector switch to the highest range and work down to lower range.

DC and AC current measurement using DMM

1. Connect the positive test lead to the COM terminal and red test lead to the terminal marked
'A' for the measurement of current up to 2A. For the measurement of current in the range
from 2A to 20A connect the red test lead to 20 A terminal.

2. Set the range selector switch to the DC A or AC A accordingly, and connect the test leads
in series with the load under measurement.

Resistance measurement using DMM

1. Insert the positive and negative test leads in proper places.

2. Set the range selector switch to the Ω range and connect the test leads across the resistance
under mesurement.
Voltmeter

A voltmeter is an instrument that measures the difference in electrical potential between two
points in an electric circuit. An analog voltmeter moves a pointer across a scale in proportion
to the circuit's voltage; a digital voltmeter provides a numerical display. Any measurement that
can be converted to voltage can be displayed on a meter that is properly calibrated; such
measurements include pressure, temperature, and flow.

In order for a voltmeter to measure a device's voltage, it must be connected in parallel to that
device. This is necessary because objects in parallel experience the same potential difference.

Voltmeter in Parallel

(a) To measure the potential difference in this series circuit, the voltmeter (V) is placed in
parallel with the voltage source or either of the resistors. Note that terminal voltage is measured
between points a and b. It is not possible to connect the voltmeter directly across the EMF
without including its internal resistance, r. (b) A digital voltmeter in use
Ammeters

An ammeter measures the electric current in a circuit. The name is derived from the name for
the SI unit for electric current, amperes (A).

In order for an ammeter to measure a device's current, it must be connected in series to that
device. This is necessary because objects in series experience the same current. They must not
be connected to a voltage source -- ammeters are designed to work under a minimal burden,
(which refers to the voltage drop across the ammeter, typically a small fraction of a volt).

Ammeter in Series

An ammeter (A) is placed in series to measure current. All of the current in this circuit flows
through the meter. The ammeter would have the same reading if located between points d and
e or between points f and a, as it does in the position shown. (Note that the script capital E
stands for EMF, and r stands for the internal resistance of the source of potential difference. )

Galvanometers (Analog Meters)

A galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument for detecting the direction of electric

current. A galvanometer works as an actuator, by producing a rotary deflection (of a "pointer"),
in response to electric current flowing through a coil in a constant magnetic field. Analog
meters have needles that swivel to point at numbers on a scale, as opposed to digital meters,
which have numerical readouts. The heart of most analog meters is a device called a
galvanometer, denoted by G. Current flow through a galvanometer, IG, produces a proportional
movement, or deflection, of the needle.

Galvanometer can be converted as Ammeter and Voltmeter by adding shunt resistance in

parallel and high resistance in series, respectively.