Electric Current

A free electron model is the simplest way to represent the electronic structure of metals.
According to this model, the valence electrons of the constituent atoms of the crystal become
conduction electrons and travel freely throughout the crystal. Therefore, within this model we
neglect the interaction of conduction electrons with ions of the lattice and the interaction
between the conduction electrons. In this sense we are talking about a free electron gas.
However, there is a principle difference between the free electron gas and ordinary gas of
molecules.
First, electrons are charged particles. Therefore, in order to maintain the charge neutrality of the
whole crystal, we need to include positive ions. This is done within the jelly model, according to
which the positive charge of ions is smeared out uniformly throughout the crystal. This positive
background maintains the charge neutrality but does not exert any field on the electrons. Ions
form a uniform jelly into which electrons move.
Second important property of the free electron gas is that it should meet the Pauli exclusion
principle, which leads to important consequences.
The directed motion of electric charges, the continuous flow of charge under the action of an
electric field, produced by a source of electric current - battery, is called an electric current.
Particles with a positive charge move in the direction of the field, from "+" to "-", and the
negative ones vice versa.
Electrolytes are the conductors in which charges that move under the influence of an electric
field are positive and negative ions.
Electric current I is also known as amperage is defined as the net amount of charge ∆q passing
through a cross-sectional area in unit of time Δt. It is a scalar quantity, and is measured using a
device called an Ammeter.

Conventionally, the direction of electric current(conventional current) in an electric circuit is

taken by the direction of the positive charge (positive to negative), that it is the opposite
direction (positive to negative) to the direction of flow (negative to positive) of electrons which
are negative charges. In fact the actual direction of the electric current is the direction of
electros flow (negative to positive)
The Ampere, symbol: A, often shortened to amp, is the unit of electric current in the
International System of Units (SI). .
Through it, and based on the equation for the electric current, the unit for the amount of
electricity 1C can be defined.
The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, was then defined as "the quantity of electricity carried in 1
second by a current of 1 ampere".
The amount of electric current traveling per unit cross-section area is called as current density
and expressed in amperes per square meter. The more the current in a conductor, the higher
will be the current density.
Current density is a vector quantity having both a direction and a scalar magnitude. The electric
current flowing through a solid having units of charge per unit time is calculated towards the
direction perpendicular to the flow of direction.

Direct current (DC) is one-directional flow of electric charge with a constant electric current and
electric density. An electrochemical cell is a prime example of DC power. Direct current may flow
through a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or
even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. The electric current flows in a constant
direction

If the density (direction) and strength of the current change with time, it is an alternating current,
or an alternating Current (AC) is a type of electrical current, in which the direction of the flow of
electrons switches back and forth at regular intervals or cycles.

Direct Current Generators

Battery is a device that maintains a potential difference between its two terminals. The
remaining parts of the electrodes outside the body of the battery are called the terminals of a
battery

Luigi Galvani (1737 to 1798) was an Italian physician, physicist, biologist and philosopher, who
studied animal electricity. In 1780, he discovered that the muscles of dead frogs' legs twitched
when struck by an electrical spark. This was an early study of bioelectricity.

Alessandro Volta an Italian physicist and chemist who was a pioneer of electricity and power
and is credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the discoverer of methane. He
invented the voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800.

His "voltaic pile" operated by placing pieces of cloth soaked in salt water between pairs of zinc
and copper discs. Contact between the two metals creates a difference in potential (or pressure,
or "voltage"), which in a closed circuit produces electric current.

A rechargeable battery, storage battery, or secondary cell (formally a type of energy

accumulator), is a type of electrical battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and
recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully
charged and discarded after use. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells.

The term "accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a reversible
electrochemical reaction.

Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from button
cells to megawatt systems connected to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several
different combinations of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid,
zinc–air, nickel–cadmium (NiCd),

In electromagnetism and electronics, electromotive force (also electromotance, abbreviate Ɛ, is

an energy transfer to an electric circuit per unit of electric charge, measured in volts.
 Electric Resistance and Ohm’s Law

Electrical Resistance (is a measure (degree) in electricity, property of an electric circuit or part
of a circuit that transforms electric energy into heat energy in opposing electric current.)
Resistance involves collisions of the current-carrying charged particles with fixed particles that
make up the structure of the conductors.
The dissipation of electric energy in the form of heat, even though small, affects the amount of
electromotive force, or driving voltage, required to produce a given current through the circuit. In
fact, the electromotive force U (measured in volts) across a circuit divided by the current I
(amperes) through that circuit defines quantitatively the amount of electrical resistance R.

The graph of the dependence of the electric current on the voltage is called the volt-ampere
characteristic of the conductor.

The ohm is the common unit of electrical resistance, equivalent to one volt per ampere and
represented by the capital Greek letter omega, Ω. Ohms are named after Georg Simon Ohm
(1784-1854), a German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance.

I- electrical current

U - voltage at the ends of the conductor

R - resistance of the conductor

The voltage of a part of an electric circuit is equal to the product of the current flowing through it
and its resistance.

(V=IR Very important reason)

If the current in the circuit the greater and the internal resistance r of the current source is
greater , than the voltage at the ends of the resistor U will differ from the electromotive force
(emf) Ɛ of the battery (or the open-circuit emf). When the resistance of the conductor R is much
higher compared to the internal resistance of the source r, the product I·r is practically equal to
zero, so U ≈ Ɛ .

The Resistance of a conductor (wire) changes according to its physical structure. We assume
that resistance arises due to collisions of free electrons with atoms in the material. As the length
of the wire is increased, the number of collision increases. Therefore, we conclude that the
length of a wire l, is directly proportional to its resistant:

The Resistance can be compare to traffic; in traffic jam, as the road becomes wider, traffic flows
easily. Similarly, as the cross-sectional area of the wire increases, electrons can flow more
easily, since they confronted with less resistance. Thus resistance is inversely proportional to its
cross-sectional area :

Where symbol ρ is a proportionality constant and is called resistivity of a conductor. The

resistivity of a material, ρ, depends on a type of material itself, not on its dimensions. Resistivity
is a intrinsic characteristic of a material.

Materials with small resistivities are good conductors. Metals are generally good conductors.
The resistivity of a various metals is given in a table.

Resistivity, electrical resistance of a conductor of unit cross-sectional area and unit length.

A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a
conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity falls as its temperature
rises; metals behave in the opposite way. Its conducting properties may be altered in useful
ways by introducing impurities ("doping") into the crystal structure.

Electric current is formed by the motion of electrons through a conductor. If we apply a voltage
across a steel wire and than heat it, we see that the current passing through it decreases. This
indicates that the current in a conductor changes with temperature. Let the resistance of a
conductor at an initial temperature, t0 be R0 and at a final temperature, t be R. The relationship
between these two temperatures is given by.

-relative change of resistance

Where the proportionality constant, α, is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity of which
the resistor is made.
A temperature coefficient of resistivity describes the relative change of a resistance, when the
change in temperature of the conductor is 1K.

The resistance in all metals increases with increasing temperature (𝛼>0), but resistance of some
electrolytes, carbon, porcelain and glass decreases with the temperature (𝛼<0

Superconductivity, complete disappearance of electrical resistance in various solids when they

are cooled below a characteristic temperature. This temperature, called the transition
temperature, varies for different materials but generally is below 20K (−253 °C).

Superconductors are used for creating a magnets with strong magnetic fields. Suggested uses
for superconducting materials include medical magnetic-imaging devices, magnetic
energy-storage systems, motors, generators, transformers, computer parts, and very sensitive
devices for measuring magnetic fields, voltages, or currents. The main advantages of devices
made from superconductors are low power dissipation, high-speed operation, and high
sensitivity.

Work and Power in an Electric Current

Consider conductor BC of resistance R across whose ends the voltage U is applied. The charge
𝑞=𝐼∙𝑡 will flow during the time t through every cross section of the conductor. This is equivalent to
the fact that the charge 𝐼∙𝑡 is carried during the time 𝑡from one end of the conductor to the other.
So the work done by an electric current W is given by

𝑊= 𝐹𝑙 = 𝑞𝐸𝑙 = 𝑞𝑈

𝑞=𝐼𝑡

Joule-Lenz’s law states that, electrical energy produced by the battery is converted into heat in a
resistor R so:

𝑾 = Δ𝑸=𝑼𝑰∆𝒕

When an electric current is passed through a conductor, the conductor becomes hot after some
time and produces heat. This happens due to the conversion of some amount of electric energy,
passing through the conductor, into heat energy ΔQ. This effect of electric current is called
heating effect of electric current. The heating effect of electric current depends on three factors:

♦The resistance, R of the conductor. A higher resistance produces more heat

♦The time, t for which current flows. The longer the time the larger the amount of heat produced

♦The amount of current, I. the higher the current the larger the amount of heat generated

For series connected resistors:

Joule–Lenz law states that the amount of heat dissipated from a current carrying conductor is
proportional to the resistance of the conductor, the square of the current and the time needed
for the current to pass through the conductor.
I_1=I_2=٠٠٠=I_n
U=IR
∆Q=UI∆t
∆Q=I^2 R∆t
For parallel-connected resistors:
since the voltage in the separate branches is equal this law took the form
𝑈_1=𝑈_2=٠٠٠=𝑈_𝑛
𝐼=𝑈/𝑅

When connecting two resistors in series whose electrical resistances R1and R2 the same
current will pass through both.
According to the Joule-Lenz law, a heat will be released in them
Q1 = I2R1 t and Q2 =I2R2 t.
When the last two equations are divided, we get:

Therefore, a greater amount of heat will be released in a resistor with a higher electrical
resistance. Namely, when connecting the resistors in series if R1> R2 then and ∆Q1 > ∆Q2

If, on the other hand, the resistors are connected in parallel, since the voltage on both resistors
is the same, it is valid

when connected in parallel, a greater amount of heat is released in the resistor with lower
electrical resistance. if R1> R2 then and ∆Q1 < ∆Q2

Power (effect) of the electric current is the work performed by the electric current in a unit of
time:
An electrical consumer has a power of 1 W if there is a voltage of 1 V at its ends, and a constant
current of 1 A flows through it.

An electricity meter, electric meter, electrical meter, energy meter, or kilowatt-hour meter is a
device that measures the amount of electric energy consumed by a residence, a business, or an
electrically powered device.

Electric meter or energy meter measures the total power consumed over a time interval.

Electric utilities use electric meters installed at customers' premises for billing and monitoring
purposes. They are typically calibrated in billing units, the most common one being the kilowatt
hour (kWh). They are usually read once each billing period.

Kirchhoff’s Law

A circuit is a closed path that consists of circuit components in which electrons from a voltage or
current source can flow. An electric circuit includes a device that gives energy to the charged
particles constituting the current, such as a battery or a generator; devices that use current,
such as lamps, electric motors, or computers; and the connecting wires or transmission lines.

Electric circuits are classified in several ways. A direct-current circuit carries current that flows
only in one direction. An alternating-current circuit carries current that pulsates back and forth
many times each second, as in most household circuits.

A Simple Circuit contains a source of electrical energy, an energy consuming unit (i.e. a resistor)
and wires that connects the circuit elements to each other. In order for current to flow, the circuit
must be closed, that is, there must be a path from the positive to the negative terminal of the
source through the circuit.

A single loop circuit is a circuit in which all the elements are connected to form one loop of the
circuit, the elements are connected to each other, in series, then we say that the elements have
serial connection .

A series circuit comprises a one path along which the whole current flows through each
component. Since the electrons must follow a single path, the current passing through each
resistor is the same.

Before talking about what a multi-loop circuit is, it is helpful to define two terms, junction and
branch.

A junction is a point where at least three circuit paths (conductors) meet, it is also called nodes
or branch point.

CиD

A branch is a path connecting two junctions:

CR1ε1D
CR2D

CR3ε2D

In a circuit involving one battery and a number of resistors in series and/or parallel, the resistors
can generally be reduced to a single equivalent resistor. With more than one battery, the
situation is trickier. If all the batteries are part of one branch they can be combined into a single
equivalent battery. Generally, the batteries will be part of different branches, and another
method has to be used to analyze the circuit to find the current in each branch. Circuits like this
are known as multi-loop circuits.

Loops is any closed conducting path.

The circuit loop is a closed path to which electric charge will flow, it will be:

CR2Dε2R3C

CR1ε1DR2C

CR1ε1Dε2 R3C

Kirchhoff’s rules, two statements about multi-loop electric circuits that embody the laws of
conservation of electric charge and energy and that are used to determine the value of the
electric current in each branch of the circuit.

The first rule, the junction theorem, states that the algebraic sum of the currents into a specific
junction in the circuit equals the algebraic sum of the currents out of the same junction.

Or simply stated, the sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum of currents leaving that
junction.

Or the algebraic sum of the currents flowing into any junction is zero

So, the current flowing towards the junction is consider positive, and the current flowing away
from the junction is consider negative.

Electric charge is conserved: it does not suddenly appear or disappear; it does not pile up at
one point and thin out at another.

Kirchhoff’s second law states that around each loop in an electric circuit the sum of the emf’s
(electromotive forces, or voltages, of energy sources such as batteries and generators) is equal
to the sum of the potential drops, or voltages across each of the resistances, in the same loop.

Or that the algebraic sum of potential differences in any loops must be equal to zero.

All the energy imparted by the energy sources to the charged particles that carry the current is
just equivalent to that lost by the charge carriers in useful work and heat dissipation around
each loop of the circuit.
To analyze a circuit using the branch-current method involves three steps:

1. Label the current and the current direction in each branch. Sometimes it's hard to tell which is
the correct direction for the current in a particular loop. That does NOT matter. Simply pick a
direction. If you guess wrong, you will get a negative value. The value is correct, and the
negative sign means that the current direction is opposite to the way you guessed. You should
use the negative sign in your calculations, however.

2. Use Kirchoff's first rule to write down current equations for each junction that gives you a
different equation. For a circuit with two inner loops and two junctions, one current equation is
enough because both junctions give you the same equation.

3. Use Kirchoff's second rule to write down loop equations for as many loops as it takes to
include each branch at least once. To write down a loop equation, you choose a starting point,
and then walk around the loop in one direction until you get back to the starting point. As you
cross batteries and resistors, write down each voltage change. Add these voltage gains and
losses up and set them equal to zero.

When you cross a battery from the - side to the + side, that's a positive change. Going the other
way gives you a drop in potential, so that's a negative change.

When you cross a resistor in the same direction as the current, that's also a drop in potential so
it's a negative change in potential. Crossing a resistor in the opposite direction as the current
gives you a positive change in potential.

𝐼_3 𝑅_2=𝜑_𝐶−𝜑_𝐷

𝐼_2 𝑅_3=𝜀_2+𝜑_𝐷−𝜑_𝐶

𝜑_𝐶−𝜑_𝐷=−(𝜑_𝐷−𝜑_𝐶 )

𝐼_2 𝑅_3=𝜀_2−𝐼_3 𝑅_2

𝑰_𝟐 𝑹_𝟑+𝑰_𝟑 𝑹_𝟐=𝜺_𝟐

Combinationsof Resistors

Types of resistors:

1. Linear resistors:

a. Fixed resistors -

1. Carbon composition resistors.

2. Wire wound resistors.

3. Thin-film resistors.
 4. Thick film resistors.

b. Variable resistors -

1. Potentiometer.

2. Rheostats.

3. Trimmers.

2. Non-linear resistors:

1. Thermisters.

2. Varistors.

3. Photoresistors or Light dependent resistors (LDR).

Electric circuit usually contains combinations of resistors in many configurations. This is required
in order to obtain specific currents or to maintain a required potential difference across a circuit
element.

A single resistor can always be found which would replace a combinations of resistors. The
value of this single resistor is called equivalent resistance of the combination.

Two or more resistances are said to be connected in series when they are connected end to
end and the same current flows through each of them in turn.

In Series Combinations of Resistors, the equivalent or the total resistance equals the sum of the
number of individual resistances present in the series combination.

Mathematically, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistances (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5,
……..) connected in series is given as:

Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5 + ……..

𝐼=𝐼_1=𝐼_2=𝐼_3

𝑈=𝑈_1+𝑈_2+𝑈_3

𝑈=𝐼𝑅

𝐼𝑅_𝑒𝑞=〖𝐼𝑅〗_1+〖𝐼𝑅〗_2+〖𝐼𝑅〗_3

𝑹_𝒆𝒒=𝑹_𝟏+𝑹_𝟐+𝑹_𝟑

In series combination, we have the following characteristics in term of potential difference,

current and resistance relationship:

The current through the circuit will remain the same here.

𝐼 = 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = 𝐼3

The equivalent potential difference is the sum of the individual potential difference across each
resistor. As a result, equivalent resistance becomes the sum of individual resistances.
 𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉

Replace the three resistors connected in series by an equivalent single

resistor of resistance Req, such that the potential difference Veq across

its terminals, and the current I through the circuit remains the same.

Applying Ohm’s law to the circuit:

𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑞; 𝑉1 = 𝐼𝑅1; 𝑉2 = 𝐼𝑅2,; 𝑉3 = 𝐼𝑅3

Hence, 𝐼𝑅= 𝐼𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑅2 + 𝐼𝑅3 or 𝑹𝒆𝒒 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑

The only disadvantage of a series combination is that, if any resistor in a series combination is
disrupted or a failure occurs, the whole circuit is switched off.

The series combination is needed to increase the resistance and to divide high potential
differences across many resistances.

Such a combination is used in resistance boxes, decorative lights etc.

Resistors in Parallel Combination

Two or more resistances are said to be connected in parallel connected when they are
connected between two points and each has a different current direction, or to any two circuits
point of two different wires, with negligible resistance.

The current is branched out and recombined as the branches intersect at a common point in
such circuits.

Mathematically, the equivalent resistance of any number of resistances (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5,...)
connected in parallel is given as:

𝟏/𝑹_𝒆𝒒 =𝟏/𝑹_𝟏 +𝟏/𝑹_𝟐 +𝟏/𝑹_𝟑

𝑈=𝑈_1=𝑈_2=𝑈_3

𝐼=𝐼_1+𝐼_2+𝐼_3

𝐼=𝑈/𝑅

𝑈/𝑅_𝑒𝑞 =𝑈/𝑅_1 +𝑈/𝑅_2 +𝑈/𝑅_3

𝟏/𝑹_𝒆𝒒 =𝟏/𝑹_𝟏 +𝟏/𝑹_𝟐 +𝟏/𝑹_𝟑

Here, the equivalent resistance is always lesser than all the individual resistances.

The equivalent current through the circuit is the sum of individual currents through each branch
of the circuit.

𝐼=𝐼_1+𝐼_2+𝐼_3

The potential difference across the two terminal points of the circuit remains the same.
𝑈=𝑈_1=𝑈_2=𝑈_3

As a result, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of the circuit is the sum of reciprocal of the
individual resistances.

𝟏/𝑹_𝒆𝒒 =𝟏/𝑹_𝟏 +𝟏/𝑹_𝟐 +𝟏/𝑹_𝟑

In a parallel circuit, a resistor or some other component can be easily connected or

disconnected without disturbing the other components.

In parallel combination, the current flown in the circuit is divided into different branches and
hence each component receives the required amount of current.

If one of the components fails or shorted, the rest of the components of the circuit works usually.

Thermionic Emission

Thermionic emission (also known as thermal electron emission or the Edison effect) is the
liberation of electrons from an electrode (the surface of metals) by virtue of its temperature (that
is releasing of energy supplied by heat).

The minimum energy of the electrons of an electrode (metal), supplied by heat, and required to
overcome the attractive force that holds them in the structure of the metal is called the work
function. It is characteristic of the emitting material and the state of contamination of its surface.

This occurs because the thermal energy given to the charge carrier overcomes the work
function of the material. After emission, a charge that is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign
to the total charge emitted is initially left behind in the emitting region. But if the emitter is
connected to a battery, the charge left behind is neutralized by charge supplied by the battery as
the emitted charge carriers move away from the emitter, and finally the emitter will be in the
same state as it was before emission.

In thermionic emission, the heat supplies some electrons with at least the minimal energy
required to overcome the attractive force holding them in the structure of the metal.

Photoelectric effect, phenomenon in which electrically charged particles are released from or
within a material when it absorbs electromagnetic radiation.
The Photoelectric effect is often defined as the ejection of electrons from a metal plate when
light falls on it.
In a broader definition, the radiant energy may be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light, X-rays, or
gamma rays; the material may be a solid, liquid, or gas; and the released particles may be ions
(electrically charged atoms or molecules) as well as electrons.

Secondary electron emission is a method of electron emission from the surface of a metal.
When primary electrons or some ionizing radiation is injected into a metal, secondary electrons
come off its surface. These are sputtered due to the high kinetic energy of incident particles.
This energy is shifted to free electrons present in the metal. When the energy becomes
sufficient, these electrons can escape from the attractive potential of the nuclei. The incident
electrons on the metal are called primary electrons and the emitted electrons from the surface
are called secondary electrons. The number of incident electrons of high kinetic energy directly
effects the number of secondary electrons.

The number of emitted electrons depends on the temperature at which the metal surface is
heated, on the area of the metal surface and on the size of the work function of the material.