SCHOOL OF AUDIO ENGINEERING

Diploma in Audio Engineering

RA 101: INTRODUCTION TO STUDIO STUDIES

RT 101.3: BASIC ELECTRONICS

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BAISIC ELECTRONICS
Electricity
Atom Model
Electric Power is a form of energy. All matter is made up of atoms, and
an atom has a center, called a nucleus. The nucleus contains positively
charged particles called protons and uncharged particles called
neutrons. The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by negatively charged
particles called electrons. The negative charge of an electron is equal to
the positive charge of a proton, and the number of electrons in an atom
is usually equal to the number of protons. When the balancing force
between protons and electrons is upset by an outside force, an atom
may gain or lose an electron. When electrons are "lost" from an atom,
the free movement of these electrons constitutes an electric current.

Conductors
In some materials, electrons move easily from atom to atom. In others,
the electrons move with difficulty. And in some materials, it is almost
impossible to get them to move. An electrical conductor is a substance
in which the electrons are mobile. Atoms having only one electron in

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the outermost shell are unstable. The outer most electrons will be
available for conduction and they are good conductors.

The best conductor at room temperature is pure elemental silver.

Copper and aluminum are also excellent electrical conductors. Iron,
steel, and various other metals are fair to good conductors of electricity.
In most electrical circuits and systems, copper or aluminum wire is
used. Silver is impractical because of its high cost.

Some liquids are good electrical conductors. Mercury is one example.

Salt water is a fair conductor. Gases are, in general, poor conductors of
electricity. This is because the atoms or molecules are usually too far
apart to allow a free exchange of electrons.

Insulators
Atoms having 8 electrons in the outermost shell are stable. The
electrons of such elements are immovable and hence they are
insulators. Most gases are good electrical insulators. Glass, dry wood,
paper, and plastics are other examples. Pure water is a good electrical
insulator, although it conducts some current with even the slightest
impurity. Metal oxides can be good insulators, even though the metal
in pure form is a good conductor. An insulating material is also known
as a dielectric.

Semiconductors
Atoms having 4 electrons in the outermost shell are neither good
conductor nor good insulator. They are called semiconductor. Eg:
Silicon, Germanium. The conductive properties of semiconductor can
be changed by adding impurities. The process is called Doping.

Current (I)
Given an appropriate external force, the movement of electrons is from
negatively charged atoms to positively charged atoms. This flow of
electrons is called current (I). The symbol “I” is used to represent
current. The amount of current is the sum of the charges of the moving
electrons past a given point.

An electron has a very small charge, so the charge of 6.24 x 1018

electrons is added together and called a Coulomb (C). When one

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coulomb of charge moves past a single point in one second it is called
an ampere (A). The ampere is named for a French physicist named
Andre Marie Ampere (1775-1836). Current is measured in Amperes.

• Current is the rate of flow of electron.

• If 1 Coulomb of charge (6.25X1018 electrons) flows in 1 second, the
current is 1 Ampere.
Voltage (V)
If there is excess of electrons (negative charge) at one end of a
conductor and a deficiency of electrons (positive charge) at the opposite
end, a current flows between the two ends. The current flows through
the conductor as long as this condition persists. The source that creates
this excess of electrons at one end and the deficiency at the other end
represents the potential. The potential is the ability of the source to
move the electrons from one end of the conductor to the other.

The actual work accomplished in a circuit is a result of the difference of

potential available at the two ends of a conductor. It is this difference of
potential that causes electrons to move or flow in a circuit. The
difference of potential is referred to as electromotive force (emf) or
voltage. Voltage is the force that moves the electrons in the circuit.
Think of voltage as the pressure or pump that moves the electrons.
The symbol E is used in electronics to represent voltage. The unit for
measuring voltage is the volt (V), named for Count Alessandro Volta
(1745-1827), inventor of the first cell to produce electricity.

• In order to have current flow potential difference must exist across

the conductor. More the potential difference more the current.
• The unit of potential difference is Volts (V)

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Figure 1.8 Electrons flow in a circuit

because of the difference of potential.

Resistance (R)
As the free electrons move through the circuit, they encounter atoms
that do not readily give up electrons. This opposition to the flow of
electrons (the current) is called resistance (R). Every material offers
some resistance or opposition to current flow. The degree of resistance
of a material depends on its size, shape, and temperature. Resistance is
measured in ohms, a unit named for the German physicist George
Simon Ohm (1787-1854). The symbol for the ohm is the Greek letter
omega (Ω).

• The property of a conductor which opposes the flow of current is

called resistance. More the resistance lesser is the current. The unit
of resistance is Ohms (Ω)
Conductance
• Conductance is the ability of a conductor to allow the electric
current. It is the reciprocal of resistance. Measured in Siemens.
Ohms Law
Ohm’s law, the relationship among current, voltage, and resistance was
first observed by George Ohm in 1827
• Ohms Law relates the current, voltage and resistance.
• Ohms Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the ends
and inversely proportional to the resistance at constant
temperature.
V=IxR

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If we knew the battery was suppling 12V and the current being
generated was 12A, then the Resistance would be:
R = 12/12 : R = 1Ohm

Power
Electrical or mechanical power relates to the rate at which work is being
done. Work is done whenever a force causes motion. If a mechanical
force is used to lift or move a weight, work is being done. However,
force exerted without causing motion, such as a force of a compressed
spring between two fixed objects, does not constitute work.

Voltage is an electrical force that creates current to flow into a closed

circuit. When voltage exists between two points and current cannot
flow, no work is done. This is similar to a spring under tension that
produces no motion. When voltage causes electrons to move in a
circuit, work is being done. The instantaneous rate at which work is
done is called the electric power rate and is measured in watts.

The total amount of work done may be accomplished in different

lengths of time. For example, a given quantity of electrons may be
moved from one location to another in one second, one minute, or one
hour, depending on the rate in which they were moved. In all cases, the
total amount of work done is the same. However, when the work is
done in a short period of time, the instantaneous power rate (wattage)
is greater than when the same amount of work is done over a longer
period of time.

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As mentioned, the basic unit of power is the watt. A watt is equal to the
voltage across a circuit multiplied by the current through the circuit. It
represents the rate at any given instant in which work is being done,
moving electrons through the circuit. The symbol P represents electrical
power. The relationship of power, current, and voltage may be
expressed as follows:

P=IxV

I represent the current through the circuit and V represents the voltage
applied to the circuit being measured. The amount or power will differ
with any change in the voltage or current in the circuit.

Magnetism
The word magnet is derived from
magnetite, the name if a mineral
found in Magnesia, a part of Asia
Minor. This mineral is a natural
magnet. Another type of magnet
is the artificial magnet. This
magnet is created by rubbing a
piece of soft iron with a piece of
magnetite. A third type of
magnet is the electromagnet. It is
created by current flowing
through a coil of wire.

Magnets come in various shapes.

Among the more common shapes
are the horseshoe, the bar or
rectangle, and the ring. Magnets
that retain their magnetic
properties are called permanent
magnets. Magnets that retain
only a small portion of their Magnets come in various sizes and shapes.
magnetic properties are called
temporary magnets.

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The earth itself is a huge magnet. The earth’s magnetic North and South
Poles are situated close to the geographic North and South Poles. If a
bar magnet is suspended, the magnet aligns in a north-south direction,
with one end pointing toward the North Pole of the earth and the other
toward the South Pole. This is the principle behind the compass. It is
also the reason the two ends of the magnet are called the North Pole
and the South Pole.

The earth’s magnetic North and

South Poles are situated close to the
geographic North and South Poles.

Magnets align in a north-south direction because of laws similar to

those of positive and negative charges: Opposite magnetic poles attract
each other and similar magnetic poles repel each other.

Magnetism, the property of the magnet, can be traced to the atom. As

electrons orbit around the nucleus of the atom, they spin on their axis,
like the earth as it orbits the sun. This moving electrostatic charge
produces a magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic field depends
on the electron’s direction of spin. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are the only
naturally magnetic elements.

Ferromagnetic materials are materials that respond to magnetic fields.

In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms combine into domains, or groups
of atoms arranged in the form of magnets. In an unmagnetized
material, the magnetic effect is zero. When the material becomes
magnetized, the domains align in a common direction and the material
becomes a magnet. If the magnetized material is divided into smaller
pieces, each piece becomes a magnet with its own poles.

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The domains in un-magnetized material are When material becomes magnetized, all the
randomly arranged with no overall magnetic domains align in a common direction.
effect.

Magnetic Fields

A magnetic field consists of invisible lines of force that surround a

magnet. These lines of force are called flux lines. They can be “seen” by
placing a sheet of paper over a magnet and sprinkling iron filings on
the paper. When the paper is lightly tapped, the iron fillings arrange
themselves into a definite pattern that reflects the forces attracting
them. The symbol for magnetic flux is φ and the unit is Weber (Wb).
Flux density is the concentration of flux and the unit is weber/meter2.

Magnetic lines of flux can be seen in patterns of iron filings.

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Electricity and Magnetism

When current flows through a wire, it generates a magnetic field
around the wire. Similarly, when a conductor passes or is passed by a
magnetic field, a current is produced (induced) in the conductor. As the
conductor passes through the magnetic field, free electrons are forced
to one end of the conductor, leaving a deficiency of electrons at the
other end. This results in a difference of potential between the ends of
the conductor. This difference of potential exists only when the
conductor is passing through a magnetic field. When the conductor is
removed from the magnetic field, the free electrons return to their
parent atoms.

For electromagnetic induction to occur either the conductor must move

or the magnetic field must move. The voltage produced in the
conductor is called induced voltage. The amount of induced voltage is
determined by the strength of the magnetic field, the speed with which
the conductor moves through the magnetic field and the length of the
conductor.

The stronger the magnetic field, the greater the induced voltage. The
faster the conductor moves through the field, the greater the induced
voltage. Motion between the conductor and the magnetic field can be
produced by moving the conductor, the magnetic field, or both.

Faraday’s law
Faraday’s is the basic law of electromagnetism. It states: Whenever the
magnetic flux linked with a conductor changes, emf is induced in the
conductor. The induced voltage in a conductor is directly
proportional to the rate at which the flux linkage changes.

The polarity of an induced voltage can be determined by the following

left-hand rule for generators: The thumb, index finger, and middle
finger are held at right angles to each other (Figure 9-13). The thumb
points in the same direction as the motion of the conductor, the index
finger points in the direction of the flux lines (North to South), and the
middle finger points toward the negative end of the conductor, the
direction of the current flow.

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Alternating Current (AC)

Alternating Current (AC) generator converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy by utilizing the principle of electromagnetic induction.
The mechanical energy is needed to produce motion between the
magnetic field and the conductor.

Induced voltage
in an AC
generator

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Figure shows a loop of wire (conductor) being rotated (moved) in a

magnetic field. The loop has a light and dark side for ease of
explanation. At the point shown in part A, the dark half is parallel to
the lines of force, as is the light half. No voltage is induced. As the loop
is rotated toward the position shown in part B, the lines of force are cut
and a voltage is induced. The induced voltage is greatest at this
position, when the motion is at right angles to the magnetic field. As
the loop is rotated to position C, fewer lines of force are cut and the
induced voltage decreases from the maximum value to zero volts. At
this point the loop has rotated 180 degrees, or half a circle.

The direction of current flow can be determined by applying the left-

hand rule for generators. The direction of current flow at position B is
shown by the arrow. When the loop is rotated to position D, the action
reverses. As the dark half moves up through the magnetic lines of force
and the light half moves down, applying the left-hand rule for
generators shows that the induced voltage changes polarities. The
voltage reaches a peak at position D and decreases until the loop
reaches the original position. The induced voltage has completed one
cycle of two alternations.

The rotating loop is called an armature and the source of the

electromagnetic field is called the field. The armature can have any
number of loops. The term “armature” refers to the part that rotates in
the magnetic field, regardless of whether it consists of one loop or
multiple loops. The frequency of the alternating current completed per
second. The speed of rotation determines the frequency. An AC
generator is often called an alternator because it produces alternating
current.

Three Phase
In a standard 3 phase set up you would have three phases 120 degrees
out of phase with each other. The sum at any one point of these three
would be zero. A common way of distributing three phase is a star
connection which provides 230V between each arm and 400V 3-phase.

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Direct Current (DC)

A current which flow only in one direction id called direct current. The
most common method of production DC today is by the use of
chemical cell. The cell consists of two dissimilar metals, copper and
zinc, immersed in a salt, acid, or alkaline solution. The metals, copper
and zinc, are the electrodes. The electrodes establish contact with a
positive charge. The zinc electrode attracts free electrons in the
electrolyte and thus acquires a negative charge. Several of these cells
can be connected together to form a battery.

Light energy can be converted directly to electrical energy by light

striking a photosensitive (light-sensitive) substance in a photovoltaic
cell (solar cell). A solar cell consists of photosensitive materials
mounted between metal contacts. When the surface of the
photosensitive material is exposed to light, it dislodges electrons from
their orbits around the surface atoms of the material. This occurs
because light has energy. A single cell can produce a small voltage.

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Many cells must be linked together to produce a usable voltage and
current. Solar cells are used primarily in satellites and cameras. The
high cost of construction has limited their general application.

Electrical Safety
The high levels of current and voltage that exists in AC distribution
systems demands some that some safety measures be put in place.
Some of these measured are discussed below.

Fuses
A fuse is piece of conductor which has a maximum current carrying
capacity exceeding which it will melt down. When a fuse melts, you say
it ‘blows’. For domestic rating the most common fuses are 1, 3, 5 and
15A. Fuses are rated by the amount of current they can handle.

Earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)

An earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a device with two earth
terminals used to directly detect currents leaking to earth from an
installation and cut the power.

Rsidual current circuit breaker (RCCB)

Residual current device (RCD), or residual current circuit breaker
(RCCB), is an electrical wiring device that disconnects a circuit
whenever it detects that the flow of current is not balanced between the
phase ("hot") conductor and the neutral conductor. The presumption is
that such an imbalance may represent current leakage through the
body of a person who is grounded and accidentally touching the
energized part of the circuit. A shock, possibly lethal, is likely to result
from these conditions; RCDs are designed to disconnect quickly
enough to prevent such shocks.

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Passive Electronic Components
Resistors
Resistors are components manufactured to possess a specific value of
resistance to the flow of current. A resistor is the most commonly used
component in an electronic circuit. Resistors are available with fixed or
variable resistance values. They are available in a variety of shapes and
sizes to meet specific circuit, space, and operating requirements.
Resistors are drawn schematically as a series of jagged lines as shown.

Resistors fall into three major categories, named for the material they
are made of: molded carbon composition resistors, wire-wound
resistors, and film resistors.

Carbon Film Resistor

Metal Film Resistor

Wire Wound Resistor

Trimmers

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Variable resistors
Variable resistors allow the resistance to vary. They have a resistive
element of either carbon composition or wire that is connected to two
terminals. A third terminal is attached to a movable wiper, which is
connected to a shaft. The wiper slides along the resistive element when
the shaft is rotated. As the shaft is rotated, the resistance between the
center terminal and one outer terminal increases while the resistance
between the center terminal and the other outer terminal decreases.
Variable resistors are available with resistance that varies linearly or
logarithmically.
A variable resistor used to control voltage is called a potentiometer or
pot.

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Connecting Resistors in Series
A series circuit contains two or more resistors and provides one path
for current to flow. The current flows from the negative side of the
voltage source through each resistor to the positive side of the voltage
source. If there is only one path for current to flow between two points
in a circuit, the circuit is a series circuit.

The more resistors connected in series, the more opposition there is to

current flow. The more opposition there is to current flow, the higher
the resistance in the circuit. In other words, when a resistor is added in
series to a circuit the total resistance in the circuit increases. The total
resistance in a series circuit is the sum of the individual resistance in the
circuit. This can be expressed as:

R total = R1+ R2+ R3+ -----

Suppose the following resistances are hooked up in series with each

other: 112 Ω 470 Ω and 680 Ω. What is the total resistance of the series
combination?

Just add the values, getting a total of 112 + 470 + 680 = 1262 Ω.

Current and Voltage in Series Circuit

In a series circuit there is only one path between (-) and (+) potentials
for the electron to pass and hence all electron have to flow through all

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the resistive elements. Therefore the current through each individual
resistor will be the same, but the voltage varies according to the
resistor value.

Connecting Resistors in Parallel

A parallel circuit contains two or more resistors and provides two or

more paths for current to flow. Each current path in a parallel circuit is
called a branch. The current flows from the negative side of the voltage
source, through each branch of the parallel circuit, to the positive side
of the voltage source. If there is more than one path for current to flow
between two points in a circuit with two or more resistors, the circuit is
a parallel circuit.

The more resistors are connected in parallel, the less opposition there is
to current flow. The less opposition there is to current flow, the lower
the resistance in the circuit. In other words, when a resistor is added in
parallel to a circuit, the total resistance paths for current flow are
provided. In a parallel circuit, the total resistance is always less than the
resistance of any branch.
The total resistance in a parallel circuit is given by the formula:

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Current and Voltage in Parallel Circuit
In a parallel circuit there are many paths between (-) and (+) potentials
for the electron to pass and hence the current through each individual
resistors will not be the same, but the voltage remains constant.

Capacitance
Capacitor, or electrical condenser, is a device that is capable of storing
electrical charge. In its simplest form a capacitor consists of two metal
plates separated by a non-conducting layer called the dielectric. When
one plate is charged with electricity from a direct-current, the other
plate will have induced in it a charge of the opposite sign; that is,
positive if the original charge is negative and negative if the charge is
positive. Capacitance is the amount of electric charge it can hold.

Capacitors are limited in the amount of electric charge they can absorb;
they can conduct direct current for only an instant but function well as
conductors in alternating-current circuits. This property makes them
useful when direct current must be prevented from entering some part
of an electric circuit.

The capacitance of a capacitor is measured in Farads and is determined

by the formula
C = q/V
Where q is the charge (in coulombs) on one of the conductors and
V is the potential difference (in volts) between the conductors.

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The capacitance depends only on the thickness, area, and composition
of the capacitor's dielectric. Dielectric, or insulator, is a substance that is
a poor conductor of electricity and that will sustain the force of an
electric field passing through it. This property is not exhibited by
conducting substances. Two oppositely charged bodies placed on either
side of a piece of glass (a dielectric) will attract each other, but if a sheet
of copper is instead interposed between the two bodies, the charge will
be conducted by the copper.

The effectiveness of dielectrics is measured by their relative ability,

compared to a vacuum, to store energy, and is expressed in terms of a
dielectric constant, with the value for a vacuum taken as unity. The
values of this constant for usable dielectrics vary from slightly more
than 1 for air up to 100 or more for certain ceramics containing titanium
oxide. Glass, mica, porcelain, and mineral oils, often used as dielectrics,
have constants ranging from about 2 to 9. The ability of a dielectric to
withstand electric fields without losing insulating properties is known
as its dielectric strength.

Dielectrics, particularly those with high dielectric constants, are used

extensively in all branches of electrical engineering, where they are
employed to increase the efficiency of capacitors.

Capacitors are produced in a wide variety of forms. Air, mica, ceramics,

paper, oil, and vacuums are used as dielectrics, depending on the
purpose for which the device is intended.

Ceramic Disc
Capacitor

Electrolytic Capacitor

Polyester
Capacitor
Polypropylene Capacitor

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Capacitors in series

Capacitors in series add together like resistors in parallel. If you

connect two capacitors of the same value in series, the result will be half
the capacitance of either component alone. In general, if there are
several capacitors in series, the composite value will be less than any of
the single components. It is important that you always use the same
size units when determining the capacitance of any combination. Don’t
mix microfarads with picofarads. The answer that you get will be in
whichever size units you use for the individual components. Suppose
you have several capacitors with values C1, C2, C3 . . . Cn all connected
in series. Then you can find the reciprocal of the total capacitance, 1/C,
using the following formula:

The total capacitance, C, is found by taking the reciprocal of the

number you get for 1/C. If two or more capacitors are connected in
series, and one of them has a value that is extremely tiny compared
with the values of all the others, the composite capacitance can be taken
as the value of the smallest component.

Capacitors in parallel
When Capacitors are connected in parallel the effective plate area
increases. Therefore the total capacitance increases. Capacitances in
parallel add like resistances in series. That is, the total capacitance is the
sum of the individual component values.

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Capacitors and direct current

Suppose that you have two big, flat metal plates, both of which are
excellent electrical conductors. Imagine that you stack them one on top
of the other, with only air in between. What will take place if you
connect a source of dc across the plates? The plates will become
electrically charged, and will reach a potential difference equal to the dc
source voltage. It won’t matter how big or small the plates are; their
mutual voltage will always be the same as that of the source, although,
if the plates are monstrously large, it might take awhile for them to
become fully charged. The current, once the plates are charged, will be
zero.

A capacitor connected across a source of dc.

If you put some insulating material, such as glass, between the plates,
their mutual voltage will not change, although the charging time might
increase. If you increase the source voltage, the potential difference
between the plates will follow along, more or less rapidly, depending
on how large the plates are and on what is between them. If the voltage
is increased without limit, arcing will eventually take place. That is,
sparks will begin to jump between the plates.

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Capacitors and alternating current
Suppose that the source is changed from
direct to alternating current. Imagine that
you can adjust the frequency of this ac
from a low value of a few hertz, to
hundreds of hertz, to many kilohertz,
megahertz, and gigahertz.

At first, the voltage between the plates

will follow just about exactly along as the
ac source polarity reverses over and over.
But the set of plates has a certain amount
of capacitance, as you have learned.
Perhaps they can charge up fast, if they are small and if the space
between them is large, but they can’t charge instantaneously. As you
increase the frequency of the ac voltage source, there will come a point
at which the plates do not get charged up very much before the source
polarity reverses. The set of plates will be “sluggish.” The charge won’t
have time to get established with each ac cycle.

At high ac frequencies, the voltage between the plates will have trouble
following the current that is charging and discharging them. Just as the
plates begin to get a good charge, the ac current will pass its peak and
start to discharge them, pulling electrons out of the negative plate and
pumping electrons into the positive plate. As the frequency is raised,
the set of plates starts to act more and more like a short circuit. When
the frequency is low, there is a small charging current, but this quickly
tails off and drops to zero as the plates become fully charged. As the
frequency becomes high, the current flows for more and more of every
cycle before dropping off; the charging time remains constant while the
period of the charging/discharging wave is getting shorter. Eventually,
if you keep on increasing the frequency, the period of the wave will be
much shorter than the charging/discharging time, and current will flow
in and out of the plates in just about the same way as it would flow if
the plates were shorted out.

The opposition that the set of plates offers to ac is the capacitive

reactance. It is measured in ohms, just like resistance. But it is,
Capacitive reactance, denoted XC, can vary, from near zero (when the

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plates are huge and close together, and/or the frequency is very high) to
a few ohms, to many kilohms or megohms.

Capacitive reactance varies with frequency. But XC gets larger

(negatively) as the frequency goes down.

Reactance and frequency

If the frequency of an ac source is given in hertz as f and the
capacitance of a capacitor in farads as C, then the capacitive reactance is

XC =1/ (2ΠfC)

Capacitive reactance varies inversely with the frequency. Capacitive

reactance also varies inversely with the actual value of capacitance,
given a fixed frequency.

Inductance
Inductors are devices that oppose the flow of AC by temporarily
storing some of the electrical energy as a magnetic field. The action of
these components is known as inductance. Inductors often, but not
always, consist of wire coils. Sometimes a length of wire, or a pair of
wires, is used as an inductor. Some active electronic devices display
inductance, even when you don’t think of the circuit in those terms.
Inductance can appear where it isn’t wanted. Noncoil inductance
becomes increasingly common as the frequency of an altemating
current increases. At very-high, ultra-high, and microwave radio
frequencies, this phenomenon becomes a major consideration in the
design of communications equipment.

The unit of inductance

When a battery is connected across a wire-coil inductor (or any kind of
inductor), it takes a while for the current flow to establish itself
throughout the inductor. The current changes at a rate that depends on
the inductance: the greater the inductance, the slower the rate of change
of current for a given battery voltage. The unit of inductance is an
expression of the ratio between the rate of current change and the
voltage across an inductor measured in henry, abbreviated H.

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Coils and direct current

Suppose that you have some wire that conducts electricity very well.
What will happen if you wind a length of the wire into a coil and
connect it to a source of dc? The wire will draw a large amount of
current, possibly blowing a fuse or overstressing a battery. It won’t
matter whether the wire is a single-turn loop, or whether it’s lying
haphazardly on the floor, or whether it’s wrapped around a stick. The
current will be large. In amperes, it will be equal to I = V/R, where I is
the current, V is the dc voltage, and R is the resistance of the wire (a
low resistance).

Coils and alternating current

Suppose you change the voltage source, connected across the coil, from
dc to ac. Imagine that you can vary the frequency of the ac, from a few
hertz to hundreds of hertz, then kilohertz, then megahertz.

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At first, the ac current will be high, just as it is with dc. But the coil has
a certain amount of inductance, and it takes some time for current to
establish itself in the coil. Depending on how many turns there are, and
on whether the core is air or a ferromagnetic material, you’ll reach a
point, as the ac frequency increases, when the coil starts to get
“sluggish.” That is, the current won’t have time to get established in the
coil before the polarity of the voltage reverses. At high ac frequencies,
the current through the coil will have difficulty following the voltage
placed across the coil. Just as the coil starts to “think” that it’s making a
good short circuit, the ac voltage wave will pass its peak, go back to
zero, and then try to pull the electrons the other way. This sluggishness
in a coil for ac is, in effect, similar to dc resistance.

As the frequency is raised higher and higher, the effect gets more and
more pronounced. Eventually, if you keep on increasing the frequency
of the ac source, the coil will not even begin to come near establishing a
current with each cycle. It will act like a large resistance. Hardly any ac
current will flow through it. The opposition that the coil offers to ac is
called inductive reactance. It, like resistance, is measured in ohms. It
can vary just as resistance does, from near zero (a short piece of wire) to
a few ohms (a small coil) to kilohms or megohms (bigger and bigger
coils). Like resistance, inductive reactance affects the current in an ac
circuit. But, unlike simple resistance, reactance changes with frequency.
And the effect is not just a decrease in the current, although in practice
this will occur. It is a change in the way the current flows with respect
to the voltage.

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Reactance and frequency
Inductive reactance is indicated by the letter X with a subscript L: XL.
If the frequency of an ac source is given, in hertz, as f, and the
inductance of a coil in henrys is L, then the inductive reactance is

XL =2ΠfL
Inductive reactance increases linearly with increasing ac frequency.
Inductive reactance also increases linearly with inductance.

Impedance
The current in an AC circuit will experience different type of
oppositions such as resistance, capacitive reactance and inductive
reactance. The resultant of all such oppositions is known as impedance.
Impedance is measured in Ohms.

Introduction to transformers
When an alternating current passes through a coil of wire, the magnetic
field about the coil expands and collapses and then expands in a field of
opposite polarity and again collapses. If another conductor or coil of
wire is placed in the magnetic field of the first coil, but not in direct
electric connection with it, the movement of the magnetic field induces
an alternating current in the second coil.

If the second coil has a larger number of turns than the first, the voltage
induced in the second coil will be larger than the voltage in the first,
because the field is acting on a greater number of individual
conductors. Conversely, if the number of turns in the second coil is
smaller, the secondary, or induced, voltage will be smaller than the
primary voltage.

The action of a transformer makes possible the economical transmission

of electric power over long distances. If 200,000 watts of power is
supplied to a power line, it may be equally well supplied by a potential
of 200,000 V and a current of 1 amp or by a potential of 2000 V and a
current of 100 amp, because power is equal to the product of voltage
and current. The power lost in the line through heating is equal to the
square of the current times the resistance. Thus, if the resistance of the
line is 10 ohms, the loss on the 200,000 V line will be 10 watts, whereas

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the loss on the 2000 V line will be 100,000 watts, or half the available
power

In a transformer the coil into which the power is fed is called the
primary, the one in which the power is taken from is called a
secondary. The two coils have different number of turns in them. The
ratio
Number of turns in primary/number of turns in secondary
Is called the turns ratio and is usually denoted by n.

A transformer in which the secondary voltage is higher than the

primary is called a step-up transformer; If the secondary voltage is less
than the primary, the device is known as a step-down transformer. The
product of current times voltage is constant in each set of coils, so that
in a step-up transformer, the voltage increase in the secondary is
accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the current. There are four
types of transformers
Voltage step-up
Voltage step-down
Current step-up
Current step-down
Because transformers allow the flow of electricity from one point in the
circuit to another without any physical contact, they can be used as
isolation devices for signals.

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Step Down
Transformer

Semi conductors
Atoms having 4 electrons in the outermost shell are neither good
conductor nor good insulator. They are called semiconductor. Eg:
Silicon, Germanium. Depending on the type of impurity added
(Doped) two types of semi conductors are formed. P type
semiconductors which are positively charged and N type which are
negatively charged. Semiconductor devices are made with suitable
combinations of P and N type semiconductors.

Diode
A diode is a device consisting of one P type and one N type conductor.
Their conduction is unidirectional which enables them to remove either
positive or negative half cycle from AC. This is called rectification and
used most commonly in DC power supply units. There are also special
application diodes for different uses. A few examples are, Zener Diode
for Voltage regulation, Light Emitting Diodes (LED) for various
indications in electronic components, infra red diodes for remote
controls and security systems.

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Rectifier diodes LED

Transistors
A transistor in a three terminal device consisting of either two N type
semiconductors and one P type semiconductor (NPN) or two P type
semiconductors and one N type semiconductor (PNP). The transistor is
a device that can be used for amplification, switching, voltage
stabilization, signal modulation and many other functions. It allows a
variable current, from an external source, to flow between two of its
terminals depending on the smaller voltage or current applied to a
third terminal. Transistor can function as an amplifier in the pre
amplifier stage or in the output power stage; it can also function as an
oscillator in signal generator. Transistor are the building blocks of
integrated circuits

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Vacuum tubes

Vacuum tubes served the same purpose of transistors before the

invention of transistors. The harmonic distortion they add to the signal
makes the audio slightly warm. Because of this reason they are
preferred for many applications in audio. Vacuum tube based
condenser microphones, pre amplifiers and dynamic processors are
gadgets used in professional studios. Vintage technology makes such
components expensive and fragile.

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Reference
Fundamental of Electrical Engineering and Electronics: B.L.Theraja
Basic electronics: Bernard Grob
Principles of Electronics: V.K.Metha
Teach Yourself Electricity and Electronics: Stan Gibilisco

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