Basic Electrical Technology (ESC 101-A)

Module 1: DC Circuits

Electric Potential:
The capacity of a charged body to do work is called its electric potential.
The greater the capacity of a charged body to do work, the greater is its electric potential.
Obviously, the work done to charge a body to 1 coulomb will be a measure of its electric
potential
i.e.
Electric potential, V = Work Done/ Charge = W/Q
The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs. Therefore, the unit of electric
potential will be joules/coulomb or volt. If W = 1 joule, Q = 1 coulomb, then V = 1/1 = 1 volt.
Hence a body is said to have an electric potential of 1 volt if 1 joule of work is done to give it a
charge of 1 coulomb.

Potential Difference:
The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential difference.
Unit. Since the unit of electric potential is volt, one can expect that unit of potential
difference will also be volt. It is defined as : The potential difference between two points is 1
volt if one joule of work is done or released in transferring 1 coulomb of charge from one
point to the other.

Resistance:
The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called its resistance.
A resistance is the electric friction offered by the substance and causes production of heat
with the flow of electric current.
Unit of resistance. The practical unit of resistance is ohm and is represented by the
symbol .
It is defined as under : A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if a p.d. of 1 volt across its
ends causes 1 ampere to flow through it.

Ohm’s Law:
The ratio of potential difference (V) between the ends of a conductor to the current (I)
flowing between them is constant, provided the physical conditions (e.g. temperature etc.)
do not change i.e.

where R is the resistance of the conductor between the two points considered.
Electric Power:
The rate at which work is done in an electric circuit is called its electric power i.e.

When voltage is applied to a circuit, it causes current (i.e. electrons) to flow through it.
Clearly, work is being done in moving the electrons in the circuit. This work done in moving
the electrons in a unit time is called the electric power. Thus referring to the part AB of the
circuit (See Fig.),

The total charge that flows in t seconds is Q = I × t coulombs and by definition

The above three formulae are equally valid for calculation of electric power in a d.c. circuit.
Unit of electric power. The basic unit of electric power is joules/sec or watt. The power
consumed in a circuit is 1 watt if a p.d. of 1 V causes 1 A current to flow through the circuit.
Power in watts = Voltage in volts × Current in amperes
The bigger units of electric power are kilowatts (kW) and megawatts (MW).

Electrical Energy:
The total work done in an electric circuit is called electrical energy i.e.
Electrical energy = Electrical power × Time

Electrical energy is measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh)

Resistance in Series:
When some conductors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 etc. are joined end-on-end as in
Fig. A, they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent
resistance or total resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three
individual resistances. Being a series circuit, it should be remembered that (i) current is the
same through all the three conductors (ii) but voltage drop across each is different due to
its different resistance and is given by Ohm’s Law and (iii) sum of the three voltage drops is
equal to the voltage applied across the three conductors.
There is a progressive fall in potential as we go from point A to D as shown in Fig. B

Fig. A Fig. B

V= V1 + V2 + V3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 —Ohm’s Law

But V = IR
where R is the equivalent resistance of the series combination.
∴ IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 or R = R1 + R2 + R3
main characteristics of a series circuit are :
1. Same current flows through all parts of the circuit.
2. Different resistors have their individual voltage drops.
3. Voltage drops are additive.
4. Applied voltage equals the sum of different voltage drops.
5. Resistances are additive.
6. Powers are additive.

Resistances in Parallel:
Three resistances, as joined in Fig. are said to be connected in parallel. In this case (i) p.d.
across all resistances is the same (ii) current in each resistor is different and is given by
Ohm’s Law and (iii) the total current is the sum of the three separate currents.
The main characteristics of a parallel circuit are :
1. Same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit
2. Different resistors have their individual current.
3. Branch currents are additive.
4. Conductances are additive.
5. Powers are additive.

Circuit:
A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows
or is intended flow.
Parameters:
The various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters like resistance,
inductance and capacitance.

Electrical Network:
A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage source,
Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical network. We
may classify circuit elements in two categories, passive and active elements.

Passive Element:
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it into
heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L ) field is called passive element.
Active Element:
The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element. Examples of active
elements include voltage and current sources, generators, and electronic devices that
require power supplies. A transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it can
amplify power of a signal. On the other hand, transformer is not an active element because
it does not amplify the power level and power remains same both in primary and
secondary sides. Transformer is an example of passive element.

Bilateral Element:
Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example: Resistance; Inductance;
Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.

Unilateral Element:
Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral (example: Diode, Transistor)
element.

Meaning of Response:
An application of input signal to the system will produce an output signal, the behavior of
output signal with time is known as the response of the system.

Linear Circuit:
In simple words, a linear circuit is an electric circuit in which circuit parameters
(Resistance, inductance, capacitance, waveform, frequency etc) are constant. In other
words, a circuit whose parameters are not changed with respect to Current and Voltage is
called Linear Circuit. As the name, a linear circuit means linear characteristics in between
Current and Voltage, which means, current flowing through a circuit is directly
proportional to the applied Voltage.
Examples of Liner Circuits and Linear Elements: Resistance and Resistive Circuit;
Inductor and Inductive Circuits; Capacitor and Capacitive Circuits.
 V-I Characteristics of linear element
Non Linear Circuit
A nonlinear circuit is an electric circuit whose parameters are varied with respect to
Current and Voltage. In other words, an electric circuit in which circuit parameters
(Resistance, inductance, capacitance, waveform, frequency etc) is not constant, is called
Non Linear Circuit.

V-I characteristics of non-linear element

Bilateral Circuit:
A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either
direction. The usual transmission line is bilateral, because it can be made to perform its
function equally well in either direction.

Unilateral Circuit:
It is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of its
operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because it cannot perform rectification in
both directions.

Passive Network
A passive network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it.

Active Network
An active network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f.
Node
Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected together.

Branch
It is that part of a network which lies between two junctions.

Loop.
It is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more than once.

Mesh.
It is a loop that contains no other loop within it.

Kirchhoff’s Laws

KIRCHOFF’S CURRENT LAW: KCL states that the total current entering a junction is equal
to the total current leaving the junction. (or) The algebraic sum of the currents at the
junction (node) will be zero.
At node, (i2 + i3 +i4) = (i1 + i6 + i5)
Or i2 + i3 + i4 − i1 − i6 − i5 = 0.

KIRCHHOFF’S MESH LAW OR VOLTAGE LAW (KVL): The algebraic sum of the products of
currents and resistances in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a
network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is zero.
In other words, Σ IR + Σ e.m.f. = 0
KVL equation for the circuit shown in fig. (b) is expressed as
V1 – IR1 - IR2 - V2 - IR3 - IR4 + V3 - IR5 + V4 = 0
V1 -V2 +V3 +V4 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 + IR4 + IR5