Lecture 6,7&8: AC Bridges

A.C. Bridges
Note A: Alternating voltage: An alternating Z = Z 0Cosφ + jZ 0 sin φ
voltage can be written as complex number. It is
Z = R + jX
also known as phaser voltage.
Thus impedance is represented as a complex quantity. An
V = V0 e jωt impedance vector consists of a real part resistance, R and
V = V0 (cos ωt + j sin ωt) an imaginary part (reactance) X as shown in the Figure.
V = V0 cos ωt + j V0 sin ωt R=Z0 cosφ
X=Z0 sinφ
Real part V = V0 cos ωt
Magnitude of Z = R 2 + X 2

y
Img. part V = V0 sin ωt
Here V0 =maximum or peak value of voltage Phase angle of Z; φ = tan −1 ( X / R)
The reactances are of two ftypes:
θ= ωt =phase of a.c. voltage

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ω =angular frequency of a.c. voltage Inductive reactance XL = ωL= 2πfL
Note B: Alternating current: Similar to an Capacitive reactance XC = 1/ωC= 1/(2πfC)
alternating voltage, the alternating current can Here f and ω are the frequency and angular frequency of
also be written as complex number. It is also a.c. source. L is inductance, and C is capacitance.
known as phaser current.
I = I 0 e jωt
an
I = I 0 (cos ωt + j sin ωt)
I = I 0 cos ωt + j I 0 sin ωt
Real part I = I 0 cos ωt
Img. part I = I 0 sin ωt
Here I 0 =maximum or peak value of current
.P
Note C: Impedance: Impedance is an important
parameter used to characterize electronic circuits, Figure A
components, and the materials used to make The unit of impedance is the ohm (Ω). Impedance is a
components. commonly used parameter and is especially useful for
representing a series connection of resistance and
Impedance (Z) is generally defined as the total
reactance.
.K

opposition a device or circuit offers to the flow of

Note D: Admittance: Admittance is ratio of phaser
an alternating current at a given frequency. It is
current and voltage or is equal to reciprocal of
ratio of phaser voltage and phaser current. i.e.
impedance. i.e. Y = 1 / Z = I/V
Z=V/I
If phaser voltage and current are :
Let the phaser voltage leads the phaser current by
an angle φ. Then the equation for voltage and V = V0 e j( ωt + φ ) , I = I 0 e jωt
D

current will be: 1 I 0 e j ωt I

j( ωt + φ ) Then, Y = = = 0 e - jφ
V = V0 e Z V0 e j( ωt + φ ) V0
I = I 0 e jωt Y = Y0 e -jφ = Y0 ∠ − φ
V0 e j( ωt + φ ) V Y = Y0Cos(-φ) + jY0 sin(−φ)
Thus, Z = = 0 e jφ
jωt I0
I0 e Y = 1 / Z = G + jB
Here G is conductance, and B is susceptance. The unit of
Z = Z 0 e jφ = Z 0 ∠φ : In polar co-ordinates
admittance is the siemen (S).

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 Lecture 6,7&8: AC Bridges
A.C. Bridges: AC bridges are similar to Wheatstone bridge in which D.C. source is replaced by an A.C.
source and galvanometer with head phone/null detector. The resistors of bridge are replaced with
combination of resistor, inductor and capacitors (i.e. impedances). These bridges are used to determine the
unknown capacitance/inductance of capacitor/inductor. The working of these bridges is also based on
Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s law.
Circuit diagramme: It has four arms with impedances forming a
bridge. The two opposite junctions are connected to a head phone
while the other two are connected with an a.c. source (Fig.1).
Principle and Balance condition: When the potential difference

y
across B and D becomes zero. No current flows through BD arm.
Thus no sound is heard in head phone. This situation is called as
bridge balance situation. The bridge balance condition can be

de
obtained using the Kirchoff’s voltage and current law. Suppose
that, total current flowing from source is I. The currents in the
Fig.1
arms AB, BC, AD, DC and BD are I1, I2, I3, I4 and IH
respectively.
Since under the balance condition the Let, Z1 = R1 + jX 1 ; Z 2 = R2 + jX 2
head phone current (IH) is zero. Thus, Z 3 = R3 + jX 3 ; Z 4 = R4 + jX 4
an
I1=I2 and I3=I4
Applying KVL for loop ABDA, we have
Z1I1 − Z 3 I 3 = 0
Putting impedances in eq.(3b)
R + jX
1 R + jX
1 = 2 2
R3 + jX 3 R4 + jX 4
⇒ Z1I1 = Z 3 I 3 (1)
(R1 + jX 1 )(R4 + jX 4 ) = (R2 + jX 2 )(R3 + jX 3 )
And applying KVL for loop BCDB, we have
R1R4 − X 1 X 4 + j ( R1 X 4 + R1 X 4 )
Z2I2 − Z4I4 = 0
.P
= R2 R3 − X 2 X 3 + j ( R2 X 3 + R3 X 2 ) (4)
⇒ Z 2 I1 − Z 4 I 3 = 0
Comparing real term of eq.(4) we have,
⇒ Z 2 I1 = Z 4 I 3 (2) R1R4 − X 1 X 4 = R2 R3 − X 2 X 3 (5)
Dividing eq.(1) with eq.(2) we have, If X1 X 4 = X 2 X 3 (6)
Z1I1 Z 3 I 3
= Under the condition given by eq.(6), the eq.(5)
.K

Z 2 I1 Z 4 I 3 becomes as,
Z1 Z 3 R1R4 = R2 R3 (7a)
⇒ = (3a)
Z2 Z4 R1 R2
= (7b)
Z1 Z 2 R3 R4
Or = (3b) Eq.(7) is the real part condition of the bridge
D

Z3 Z4
balance condition.
Eq.(3) is the balance condition for a.c bridges.
Comparing imaginary terms of eq.(5), we have,
This indicates that when the ratio of impedances
R1 X 4 + R4 X 1 = R2 X 3 + R3 X 2 (8)
in two adjacent arms of bridge is equal to the
ratio of impedances of other two adjacent arms, Dividing eq.(8) by eq.(7b), we get,
then the bridge is balanced. R1 X 4 + R4 X 1 R2 X 3 + R3 X 2
=
Since impedance is combination of real and R1R4 R2 R3
imaginary part. Thus the above balance X 4 X1 X 3 X 2
+ = +
condition can be divided in to two sub condition. R4 R1 R3 R2

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 Lecture 6,7&8: AC Bridges
X1 X 4 X 2 X 3 Parameters measured from AC Bridges: The
+ = +
R1 R4 R2 R3 capacitance of capacitor, inductance of an
φ1 + φ 4 = φ 2 + φ3 (9) inductor and frequency of ac source can be
measured with AC bridge.
Here φ is phase angle. The eqs. (6), (7) and (9)
AC bridges for measurement of C
suggests that a.c. bridge balance condition has (1) De-sauty bridge
two type of balance condition. i.e.(i) magnitude (2) Weins bridge (Series)
and (ii) phase angle balance condition. (3) Schering bridge
Alternate proof of balance condition : AC bridge AC bridges for measurement of L
balance condition is obtained when, (4) Anderson bridge

y
VB = VD (5) Maxwell inductance bridge
If V is the source voltage then, (6) Maxwell L/C bridge or Maxwell-Weins
bridge

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Z1 Z3
V= V (7) Hay bridge
Z1 + Z 2 Z3 + Z 4
Z1 Z3 (8) Owen’s bridge
= (9) Heavisible –Campbell equal ratio bridge
Z1 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 4
AC bridges for measurement of ‘f’
Z1 + Z 2 Z 3 + Z 4 (10)Robinson bridge
=
Z1 Z3 (11)Weins bridge (parallel)
Z2 Z4
=
Z1 Z 3
Z
or 1 = 3
Z2 Z4
an
Z
(1) Note: There are two types of Weins bridge:
(a) Weins series bridge: It is used to determine the
This is the ac bridge balance condition. unknown capacitance, its power factor .
Since Z = Z 0 ∠φ ; Z0=magnitude of Z (b) Weins parallel bridge: It is used in feedback
Thus, Z1 = (Z 0 )1 ∠φ1 , Z 2 = (Z 0 )2 ∠φ 2 network circuit of oscillator. It is used as
frequency determining element in audio and high
Z 3 = (Z 0 )3 ∠φ3 , Z 4 = (Z 0 )4 ∠φ 4
.P
frequency oscillators. It is also used in harmonic
Putting values of impedances in eq.(1), distortion analyzer, where it is used as a notch
(Z 0 )1 ∠φ1 (Z 0 )3 ∠φ3 filter for discriminating against one specific
=
(Z 0 )2 ∠φ 2 (Z 0 )1 ∠φ 4 frequency. The circuit diagram and formula for
(Z 0 )1 (Z 0 )3 frequency is given below.
.K

∠(φ1 − φ 2 ) = ∠(φ − φ )
(Z 0 )2 (Z 0 )1 3 4
(Z 0 )1 (Z 0 )3
∠(φ1 + φ 4 ) = ∠(φ + φ ) (2)
(Z 0 )2 (Z 0 )1 2 3
Separating the magnitude and phase angle in
D

Eq.(2), we have
(Z 0 )1 (Z 0 )3
= (3a)
(Z 0 )2 (Z 0 )1
(φ1 + φ 4 ) = (φ 2 + φ3 ) (3b)
Eqs. (3a) and (3b) suggests that a.c. bridge 1
f =
balance condition has two type of balance 2π C1C3 R1R3
condition. i.e.(i) magnitude and (ii) phase angle If R1=R3 and C1=C3 then R2=2R4 and
balance condition. f = 1 /(2πRC )

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 Lecture 6,7&8: AC Bridges
Wein’s Bridges: It is an ac bridge. It is used to Putting values of impedances, we have
determine the unknown capacitance of a 1 1
R1 + R3 +
capacitor in terms of known capacitance of jωC X jωC0
standard capacitor and is used to define the =
R2 R4
quality of capacitor by determination of its R1 1 R 1
power factor. + = 3+ (2)
R2 jωC X R2 R4 jωC0 R4
The four arms of this encloses following Comparing real part of eq.(2), we have
components. R1 R3
= (3)
AB arm: Capacitor of unknown capacitance Cx R2 R4

y
with a series internal resistance R1 Eq.(3) is the real part/dc balance condition of this
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2 bridge. By this, the series internal resistance of
AD arm: Standard capacitor of known unknown capacitor can be determined.

de
capacitance C0 with a series non-inductive And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have
variable resistance R3 1
=
1
DC arm: Variable resistance R4 ωC X R2 ωC0 R4
The complete bridge circuit is shown in C X R2 = C0 R4
following figure (X). R
C X = C0 4 (4)
an R2
The equation (4) is the formula for the
determination of unknown capacitance. On the
knowledge of R2 and R4 in balance condition,
the unknown capacitance is calculated with
eq.(4).
.P
The power factor of unknown capacitor can be
written as,
R R1
cos φ = 1 =
Z R12 + (1 / ωC x )2
Figure(X) If R1 〈 (1/ωC x ) then,
.K

Working: The variable resistances R3 and R4 cos φ = ωC x R1 (5)

are varied at fixed value of R2 , till no sound is
heard in head phone. At no sound, bridge
becomes balanced.
Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the
D
By knowing the value of R1 and C X , the power
factor can be determined with eq.(5). If power
factor is small then quality of capacitor is good
otherwise not.

four arms of the bridge. Then, Advantage

1 This bridge is most suitable for comparing capacitances
Z1 = R1 + ; Z 2 = R2
jωC X of capacitors.
1 Disadvantage
Z 3 = R3 + ; Z 4 = R4 In this bridge, final balance condition is obtained by
jωC0 alternate variation in R3 and R4. Thus both the
Under the balance condition of bridge, balance conditions are dependent on each other. Thus
Z1 Z 3 sensitivity of bridge is low and is high for equal value
= (1)
Z2 Z4 of R2 and R4.

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 Lecture 6,7&8: AC Bridges
Schering Bridges: This is an ac bridge which is 1
R1 +
used for the determination of the most accurate jωC X 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
value of the unknown capacitance of a capacitor = ⎜⎜ + jωC 4 ⎟⎟
R2 jωC0 ⎝ R4 ⎠
and is used to define the quality of capacitor by
R1 1 C 1
determination of its power factor. This bridge is + = 4+ (2)
also used in measurement of dielectric constants of R2 jωC X R2 C0 jωC0 R4
liquids, testing of cables and insulators at high Comparing real part of eq.(2), we have
voltages. R1 C 4
= (3)
The four arms of this encloses following R2 C0
components. And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have

y
AB arm: Capacitor of unknown capacitance 1 1
= ⇒ C X R2 = C0 R4
C1with a series internal resistance R1 ωC X R2 ωC0 R4
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2

de
R
AD arm: Standard Capacitor of known C X = C0 4 (4)
R2
capacitance C0
Eq.(3) is the first balance condition of this bridge.
DC arm: A variable capacitor of capacitance C4 in
By this, the series internal resistance of unknown
parallel combination with Variable resistance R4. capacitor can be determined. This condition also
The complete bridge circuit is shown in following indicates that the variation in C4 results this
figure (Y).
an balance condition and is independent of R4 .
The equation (4) is second balance condition
and provides formula for the determination of
unknown capacitance. On the knowledge of R2
and R4 in balance condition, the unknown
capacitance is calculated with eq.(4). This equation
.P
also suggests that this balance is obtained by
variation in R4 and is independent of C4 .
Thus C4 and R4 are varied at fixed value
of R2 for getting the balance condition.
Figure (Y)
The power factor of unknown capacitor can be
Working: The variable capacitor C4 and
.K

written as,
resistance R4 are varied at fixed value of R2 , till R R1
no sound is heard in head phone. At no sound, cos φ = 1 = (5)
bridge becomes balanced.
Z R12 + (1 / ωC x )2
Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the Power factor of unknown capacitor can be determined
four arms of the bridge. Then, with eq.(5) by knowing the value of R1 and C X .
D

1 Since the Both C4 and R4 are required for

Z1 = R1 + ; Z 2 = R2
jωC X determination R1 and C X , thus power factor require
1 1 1 both the variable quantity. If power factor is small
Z3 = ; = + jωC4 then quality of capacitor is good otherwise not.
jωC0 Z 4 R4
Under the balance condition of bridge, Advantage: This bridge provides Good/fine balance
Z1 Z 3
condition, most accurate result and is most sensitive.
= (1) It is also useful in measurement of dielectric
Z2 Z4 constants of liquids and testing of cables and
Putting values of impedances, we have insulators at high voltage.
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 Lecture 6,7&8: AC Bridges
Maxwell inductance bridges: It is the simplest R1 L R L
+ jω X = 3 + jω 0 (2)
ratio AC Bridge for the determination of R2 R2 R4 R4
unknown medium inductance of an inductor. Comparing real part of eq.(2), we have
This bridge is very similar to Weins series bridge. R1 R3
= (3)
The four arms of this bridge encloses R2 R4
following components.
Eq.(3) is the real part/dc balance condition of this
AB arm: Inductor of unknown inductance Lx bridge. By this, the series internal resistance of
with a series internal resistance R1 unknown inductor can be determined.
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2

y
And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have
AD arm: Variable inductor of known inductance
L X L0
L0 with its series internal resistance R3 =
R2 R4
DC arm: Variable resistance R4

de
The complete bridge circuit is shown in R
L X = L0 2 (4)
following figure (XX). R4

The equation (4) is the formula for the

determination of unknown inductance. On the
knowledge of R2 and R4 in balance condition,
an the unknown inductance is calculated.
Advantage
From eqs. (3) and (4), we can write,
R
L X = L0 1
R3
L X L0
.P
= (5)
R1 R3
Thus balance condition is obtained when,
Figure(XX) Time constant of unknown inductor
Working: The variable inductance L0 and =time constant of known inductor
.K

resistance R4 are varied at fixed value of R2 ,
till no sound is heard in head phone. At no
sound, bridge becomes balanced.
Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the
four arms of the bridge. Then,
D
Hence, this bridge is the most suitable for the
comparing inductances and in measurement of self
inductance in terms of known self inductance.
This bridge is also used for measuring the iron
losses of the transformers at audio frequency.

Z1 = R1 + jωL X ; Z 2 = R2 Disadvantage
Z 3 = R3 + jωL0 ; Z 4 = R4 The disadvantage of this bridge is that the both
Under the balance condition of bridge, balance condition can not be satisfied
Z1 Z 3 independently because any change in L0 causes
= (1) change in R3. Thus process of getting balance is
Z2 Z4
Putting values of impedances, we have not easy.
R1 + jωL X R3 + jωL0
=
R2 R4

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 Lecture 6,7&8: AC Bridges
Maxwell L/C bridges: This is an AC bridge Z1 Z 3
=
which is also known as Maxwell-Wein bridge. Z2 Z4
It is modified Maxwell’s inductance bridge. By Z2 Z4
this bridge unknown inductance of an inductor = (1)
Z1 Z 3
is measured in terms of capacitance.
Putting values of impedances, we have
The four arms of this bridge encloses ⎛ 1 ⎞ R + jωL X
following components. R2 ⎜⎜ + jωC1 ⎟⎟ = 4
⎝ R1 ⎠ R3
AB arm: A variable capacitor of capacitance C1 R2 R L
+ jωC1R2 = 4 + jω X (2)
in parallel combination of resistance R1 R1 R3 R3

y
BC arm: Fixed resistance R2 Comparing real part of eq.(2), we have
AD arm: Fixed resistance R3 R2 R4
DC arm: An inductor of unknown inductance =

de
R1 R3
LX in series of variable resistance R4 R1 R3
The complete bridge circuit is shown in = (3)
R2 R4
following figure (yy).
Eq.(3) is the real part/dc balance condition of this
bridge. Thus variation in R4 provides dc balance
condition.
an And comparing imaginary part of eq.(2), we have
L
C1R2 = X
R3
L X = C1R2 R3 (4)
The equation (4) is the formula for the
determination of unknown inductance. On the
.P
knowledge of C1 , R2 and R3 in balance
condition, the unknown inductance is calculated.
Figure(yy)
Working: The variable inductance C1 and Advantage
resistance R4 are varied at fixed value of Both the balance conditions are independent to
.K

R1 , R2 and R3 , till no sound or minimum sound
is heard in head phone. At this situation, bridge
becomes balanced.
Let Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of the
four arms of the bridge. Then,
D
each other. Initially, R4 is varied then C1 is varied
to obtain final balance condition. Thus process of
getting the balance condition is easy. In view of
getting the balance condition, this bridge is better
than the Maxwell’s inductance bridge.

1 1
Disadvantage
= + jωC1 ; Z 2 = R2 The perfect balance can never be obtained in this
Z1 R1
bridge due to stray capacitance (self capacitance
Z 3 = R3 ; Z 4 = R4 + jωL X of coil) and presence of harmonics in ac source.
Under the balance condition of bridge,

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