AVT 120/ AMT 122

 Electricity – An invisible force that produce

heat, light, motion and other physical effect.
 Atom – is the smallest particle of an element.
 Electron – are the smallest amount of charge
having a characteristic called Negative.
 Proton – are basic element with positive
charge.
 Neutrons – No charge
 Valence Electron – Electron on the last orbit.
 Electron Flow – Which is from negative to
positive.
 Conventional Current – Which while technically
incorrect, follows the arrows used on
semiconductor symbols.
- From positive to negative.
Note: Electron takes place with in the conductor at
about the speed of light. That is, about 186, 000
miles per second.
 Movement of electrons with in the conductor,
but as they move, they produce effects we can
use. They cause magnetic field to surround the
conductor. The greater the amt. of flow the
stronger will be the field. Also, as they are
forced to flow. The opposition to their flow
produces heat with in the conductor.
 Coulomb - Basic unit of Electrical Quantity
and is equals to 6.28 billion electrons or
6.28x1018
- Unit of Electric Charge.
- Symbol is “ Q ”
 Ampere / Amp. – Unit of Current
- Symbol is “I”
 Ohm – Unit of Resistance.
- Symbol is “ R “
 Volt - The unit of electrical pressure. Other
terms: Voltage, Voltage Drop, Potential,
Potential Difference, EMF, IR Drop.
- Symbol is “ E or V “

 Watt - The unit for Power

- Symbol is “ P “
 Prefixes – Electricity deal of numbers that are
extremely large or small. Because of this, metric
prefixes have been adapted to them.

 Power of tens – multiplying and dividing very

large and very small nos. is made easier by the
use of power of ten.
 Current Electricity – Electrons move through
the circuit and perform work.

 Static Electricity – Normally serves little useful

purpose, and is more often nuisance rather
than a useful form of electricity.
 Electrostatic Fields – The line of force from like
charges repel each other and will tend to push
the charge apart. Electrostatic fields are also
known as Dielectric Fields.

 Distribution of Electrical Charge

 Body with a smooth or uniform surface –

Electrically charged. The charge will distribute
evenly over the entire surface.
 Surface with irregular shape – Charge will
concentrate at the points or curve having the
sharpest curvature.
 Note: Like Charges – Repel
 Unlike Charges - Attract
 Energy cannot be destroyed or created, but
energy can be converted from one form to
another.

1. Magnetism – Electromagnetic induction

produces voltage when a conductor is moved
through a magnetic field.
2. Chemical - When materials of opposite
charges are connected, immersed in an
electrolyte and connected through external
load, an electron flow is created.
Electrons flow between two dissimilar materials when they are
connected by a conductor and immersed in an electrolyte
3. Thermal (Heat) - can also be used to produce
electricity by subjecting two dissimilar metals to
above normal temperatures. This is called the
thermoelectric effect.

Electrons flow in a thermocouple

4. Pressure - is another electricity source.
Piezoelectricity means electricity created by
applying pressure to certain types of crystals.

Quartz subjected to pressure

5. Friction - can produce static electricity by
simply rubbing two dissimilar substances
together.
6. Light - When certain photoemissive materials
such as zinc are struck by light, light energy is
absorbed and electrons are discharged. The
electrons are then channelled through a
conductor to an electrical circuit.
A photoemissive material emits electrons
when struck by light
7. MOTION - Motion can also be used to generate
electricity. By using fossil fuels such as oil, coal
and natural gas, mechanical motion is
produced to drive generators, which in turn
produce electricity.

Ex. gas turbine power plant, nuclear power

plant, wind turbine, hydroelectric turbine.
- Material which have many loose electrons,
allows the flow of current.
Ex. Silver, Copper, Gold and Aluminum

- The purpose of Conductors is to provide a path

for the electrons to flow from the source,
through the load, back to the source.
1. Physical Characteristics
 Resistivity
a.) Copper wire - has only 2/3 of the resistance of
the equivalent gage of aluminum wire.
b.) Aluminum wire – Resistivity is higher than
that of copper.
 Temperature - Most metals have what is
known as a (+) temp. coefficient of resistance.
Resistance of a material will increase as its
Temp. will increase.
2. Dimensions
 Length – for most conductors, R vary directly w/
length. L increase for a given conductor, its R will
increase.
 Resistance varies as it cross sectional area.

 Aircraft wire is measured by the American Gage

System.
 The larger the no. represents the smaller wires.

 Since it is area rather than the dimension of a

conductor that determines its current carrying
capability.
 Circular mil is the standard measurement of cross
sectional area, and is the area of a circle whose
dimension is 1 mil or 1/1000 in.
 Material which the electrons are tightly bound
on the last orbit.
 Ex. Porcelain, Plastic, Mica, Ceramic, and etc.
 All complete electrical circuits consist of at least
a) Source of electrical energy
b) A load device to use the electrical energy
produced by the source.
c) Conductors to connect the source to load or loads
in the circuits.
 These circuit elements do not compromise a
practical electrical circuit, however in order to
make a circuit practical, a control device such as
switch, must be placed in the circuit to allow the
loads to be easily and safely energized and de-
energized.
 Some type of protection must be provided for
the circuit wiring in the form of fuses or circuit
breakers. To stop the current in the event of an
overload or other circuit malfunction.
 It was the German scientist George Simon Ohm
who proved the relationship between the
following:
 Current is directly proportional with voltage
and inversely proportional with resistance.
 I = E/R
 Is measured in watts, and 1 watt is the amount
of power used in a circuit when 1 amp. Of I
flows under a pressure of volt.
 Time rate of doing work.
 Formula: P = I x E
 is a current which is non- varying or not
changing in nature, such as that obtained from
a battery or filtered power supply. This type of
+ or – maybe referred to as “pure DC ”,
meaning that no alternating current, noise, etc.
is present.
 Characteristic of a series circuit
1. There is only one path for the electrons to follow
from the source, through the load back to source.
2. The current is the same wherever it is measured in
the circuit.
3. The sum of all the voltage drop equals the source
voltage.
4. The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the
individual load resistances.
5. The total power dissipated in the circuit is the
sum of the power dissipated in each of the
individual load resistances.
 I total = I1 = I2 = I3 ….

 V total = V1 + V2 + V3…..

 R total = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 …..

 P total = I 1 E1 + I2 E2 + I3 E3 …..
 Characteristics of Parallel Circuits
1. There is only one voltage across all components in
parallel circuit.
2. The total current is equal to the sum of all the
branch.
3. The equivalent resistance of parallel branches is
less than the smallest branch resistance, since all
the branches must take more current from the
source than any one branch
4. The total resistance R t = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R 3….
5. The sum of the individual values of power
dissipated in parallel resistance equals the power
produced by the source.
 V total = V1= V 2 =V 3 …..

 I total = I1 + I 2+ I 3 …..

 R total =
1
1/R1+ 1/R 2 +1/R 3 ……
 If two resistance: R total = R1 R 2 /R 1+R2

 P total = P1+ P 2 + P3 ….
 Characteristic of series – parallel circuits.
1. The main characteristics of series – parallel
circuits. In circuits combining the series and
parallel connections, the components in one
current path without any branch points are in
series; the parts of the circuit connected across
the same two branch points are in parallel.
2. To calculate R t in a series – parallel circuit
with R in the main line, combine resistances
from the outside back toward the source.
 For complex circuits, Kirchoff’s laws may
provide the necessary techniques and
procedures. Kirchoff’s laws were discovered by
Gustav Robert Kirchoff, a German physicist in
the nineteenth century. The two laws are stated
as follows:
 The algebraic sum of the currents at any point
in a network is zero, i.e. in an electric circuit the
currents entering a junction (A) must be equal
to the currents leaving it.

I 1 + I 2 = I3 .
 Applying Kirchoff’s Second Law, The algebraic
sum of the potential drops must equal the emf,
E, in the circuit, i.e.:

I1 R1 + I2 R2 + I3 R3 + I4 R4 = E
 Assuming there is zero battery resistance,
 Consider Node A,
 Currents CA + DA - AB = 0 (law 1)
 Ie. I1 + I2 - I3 = 0 -----------------------------------------------(1)
 3I1 + 15I3 = 4 (law 2) ----------(2)
 2I2 + 15I3 = 6 (law 2) ----------(3)
 Substituting (1) into (2):
 3(I3 - I2) + 15I3 = 4
 3I3 - 3I2 + 15I3 = 4
 18I3 - 3I2 = 4 ------------------------------------------(4)
 (4) x 2:
 36I3 - 6I2 = 8 ------------------------------------------(5)
 (3) x 3:
 45I3 + 6I2 = 18 ----------------------------------------(6)
 Adding (5) and (6) to solve for I3
 81I3 = 26
 I3 = 81
 26 = 0.321A (from A to B).
 Substitute in (2) for I1:
 3I1 = 4 - (15 x26/81 )
 3I1 = - 0.8148A
I1 = - 0.2716A (from A to C).
 Substitute in (1) for I2:
 I2 = I3 - I
= 0.321 + 0.2716
 I2 = 0.5926A (from D to A)
 SUMMARY OF KIRCHOFF APPLICATION
The following is a summary of the steps taken in
applying Kirchoff’s laws.
1. Identify the junctions and currents.
2. Decided which junction to use.
3. Derive an expression using LAW 1
4. Derive an expression using LAW 2
5. Combine the expression from Law 1 with one
from Law 2 to give an equation for one current.
6. A positive value indicates current direction as
first identified.
7. A negative result indicates opposite direction.
8. Find the other currents by substitution.
 It is often necessary in electrical circuit to control
current flow by varying voltage by converting
some of the electrical energy into heat.
 Types of Resistor
1. Carbon Resistor - This type of resistor is made of
finely divide carbon or graphite mixed with a
powdered insulating material as a binder, in the
proportions needed for the desired R value.
2. Wire wound Resistor – a special type of wire
called Resistance wire is wrapped around an
insulating core.
3. Film – Type resistor – There are two kinds of film – type
resistors.
a) The carbon film type – has a thin coating around an
insulator.
b) Metal film resistors – have a spiral around a ceramic
substrate.
 Their advantage is more precise R values.
4. Chip Resistors – These have a carbon coating onto a
solid ceramic substrate. The purpose is to have more
precise R values and greater stability with temp.
changes. They are more often made in a small sq. w/
leads to fit a printed circuit board (PCB).
5. Fusible Resistors – This type of wire wound resistor
made to burn open easily when the power rating is
exceeded. It serves the dual functions of a fuse and a
resistor to limit the current.
1. Fixed Resistor - limits current and completes
circuit.
2. Variable Resistor – Varies current or voltage; used
for volume, contrast, and tone controls; needed
for many electrical equipment.
 Types of variable resistor:
1. Rheostat – is a variable resistor with two terminals
connected in series with a load. The purpose is to
vary the amount of current.
2. Potentiometer – generally called a pot for short,
has three terminals. It can be a voltage divider and
it vary the voltage in the circuit.
 The word “thermistors” comes from the words
“thermal” and “resistor”.
 are semiconductor devices that change
resistance as their temperature changes.
 are formed from metal oxides and coated with
an epoxy, glass or similar material.
 Thermistors are heat-sensitive devices used on
some aircraft to monitor the temperature of
certain electric equipment.
 The following figure shows various wattage
resistors. From left to right, the wattage ratings
are 7W, 10W, 2W, 1W, 1/2W, 1/4W and a
1/8W.
 The capacitor thus has the function of storing
charges as an excess of electrons on one plate
and a deficiency on the other.

Typical Construction of Capacitor

 Dielectric - The air, or some other insulating
materials between the plates of a capacitor.

TYPES OF CAPACITORS:

1. FIXED CAPACITORS - is constructed with

the plates and dielectric placed firmly together
and covered with a protective material such as
waxed paper, plastic, ceramic material or an
insulated metal case.
Capacitance of a fixed capacitor cannot be
changed.
 The fixed capacitors can be divided into types:
1. Electrolytic - Electrolytic capacitors are mainly
used where very large capacitances are
required, e.g. for reducing the ripple in the
voltage wave obtained from a rectifier.

2. Non-electrolytic Capacitors - For relatively low

values of capacitance.
For capacitors that require a smaller
capacity, but a higher voltage, thin sheets of
mica are used with stacks of thin metal foil
in between.
2. VARIABLE CAPACITORS - usually consists
of one set of fixed plates and another set of
movable plates, and is mainly used for radio
work where it is required to vary the
capacitance.

 Polycarbonate - has a relative permittivity of

about 2.8; it possesses high resistivity and low
dielectric loss.
Symbol For Capacitor: “ C “
Unit for capacitor is “Farad or f”

Formula: C total = 1/C1 + 1/ C2 + 1/C3….

Formula:

C total = C1 + C2 + C3……
 The following table shows the use of 5-colour
capacitor code to identify different capacitors.
COLOR 1st 2nd MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE VOLTAGE
DIGIT DIGIT (percent)
Black 0 0 1
Brown 1 1 10 1 100
Red 2 2 100 2 200
Orange 3 3 1000 3 300
Yellow 4 4 10000 4 400
Green 5 5 100000 5 500

Blue 6 6 1000000 6 600

Purple 7 7 10000000 7 700
Gray 8 8 100000000 8 800
White 9 9 1000000000 9 900
Gold .1 1000
Silver .01 2000
Body

5-Colour Capacitor Colour Code

COLOR 1st 2nd MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE TOLERANCE TEMPERATU
DIGIT DIGIT over 10pf under 10 pf RE

Black 0 0 1 20% 2.0pf 0

Brown 1 1 10 1% -30

Red 2 2 100 2% -80

Orange 3 3 1000 -150

Yellow 4 4 10000 -220

Green 5 5 5% 0.5pf -330

Blue 6 6 -470

Purple 7 7 -750

Gray 8 8 .01 0.25pf +30

White 9 9 .1 10% 1.0pf +500 to -330

Gold +100
Number Multiply By (Additional
no. of Zeros)
0 None (0)
1 10 (1)
2 100 (2)
3 1,000 (3)
4 10,000 (4)
5 100,000 (5)
6 1 ,000,000 (6)
Code Tolerance

C ±0.25pF
J ±5%
K ±10%

M ±20%

D ±0.5pF
Z +80% / -20%
- capacitive circuit is the time taken for the
voltage across the capacitor to reach 63.2% of
its full charge. It is equal to the product of a
circuit’s capacitance and its resistance.

 TC = R x C

Where:
TC = Time constant in seconds
R = Resistance in ohms
C = Capacitance in farads
MAGNET
 an object that produces an external magnetic field around itself
and has the ability to attract ferrous substances such as iron or
steel.
The ends of the magnets are called the poles.
 The label “N” identifies the north-seeking pole
 The label “S” identifies the south-seeking pole.
 The rules of magnetism are similar to static electricity charges.
Like poles repel each other with the force of repulsion.
 MAGNETIC FIELD
 consist of invisible lines of forces that leave the North
Pole of a magnet at right angles and enter the South
Pole in the same way.
 lines of magnetic flux - The lines of forces .
 Since lines of flux are polarized in the same direction,
they repel each other and spread out between the
poles.
Unmagnetized Iron

Strong Magnets
1. Permanent Magnets
 holds its magnetic properties over a long period of time and
maintains an almost constant magnetic field without the
application of any magnetizing force.
 Most permanent magnets we use are manufactured using a
combination or alloy of iron, nickel and cobalt.
 Rare-earth permanent magnets are a special type of magnet that
can have extreme strength.

2. Temporary Magnets
 is one that will lose its magnetism in a short while. An example
of a temporary magnet is soft iron.
3. Electromagnets
 An iron or steel core can be magnetized to become an
electromagnet by wrapping a wire around the metal and running
an electrical current through the wire. If the core is soft iron, the
magnetism will diminish as soon as the current is turned off. This
feature makes electromagnets good for picking up and dropping
objects.
 Typically DC electricity is used, but AC current will also result in
an electromagnet.

 PROPERTIES OF A MAGNET
1. When freely suspended, one end of the magnet always points in a
north-south direction. The pole that tends to point toward the
earth’s geographic north is called North Pole (North seeking end).
The opposite end is called the South Pole (South-seeking end).
Note that the Earth's North magnetic pole is not the same thing as
the North Pole.

2. Like magnetic poles repel each other, and unlike poles attract each
3. A magnetic field surrounds each magnet and contains magnetic
flux lines. These flux lines are directly responsible for the
magnetic properties of the material.

4. The strength of any magnet is directly proportional to density of the

flux field. That is, a stronger magnet will have a relatively larger
number of flux lines concentrated in a given area.

5. Magnetic fields are strongest near the poles of the magnet. This is
due the concentration of flux lines at each pole.

6. By definition, magnetic flux lines flow from the north to the south
pole of any magnet.

7. Flux lines never intersect. This is because flux lines repel each other
with relatively tremendous force.

8. Magnetic flux lines always take the path of least resistance, such as
when they distort in order to travel through a piece of soft iron as
opposed to travelling through air.
The earth is a large magnet and the earth’s
magnetic field exists over the entire surface. A
freely suspended magnet’s lines of force
interact with the earth’s magnetic field and
align the magnet accordingly by assuming a
north-south position
 The magnetic pole near the earth’s north
geographic pole is actually the earth’s south
magnetic pole. This can be demonstrated by
suspending a magnet on a string and noting
the direction in which the north pole points.
 SOFT IRON
 When a piece of soft iron is placed in a magnetic
field, almost all the molecules in the iron align
themselves with the field, However, as soon as the
magnetizing field is removed, most of the
molecules return to their random positions, and
the substance is demagnetized. Because some of
the molecules tend to remain in the aligned
position, every magnetic substance retains a slight
amount of magnetism after having been
magnetized. This retained magnetism is called
residual magnetism.
 Materials with low permeability, such as Alnico
and other hard iron, are best suited for permanent
magnets.
 HARD IRON
 Hard Iron, hard steel and certain metallic alloys – such
as Alnico, an alloy containing nickel, aluminium, and
coba, are more difficult to magnetize than soft iron
because of the internal friction among the molecules
and they do not shift their position easily.
 In order for the molecules to become aligned with the
field, a strong magnetic field is needed and the hard
iron might need to be struck several blows by a
hammer.
 When the molecules are aligned, all the north poles of
the molecules point in the same direction and forms
the North Pole of the magnet.
 Similarly, the south poles of the molecules form the
south pole of the magnet.
 When the hard iron is removed from the magnetic
field, it will retain its magnetism; hence it is called a
permanent magnet
 To magnetize a piece of steel by stroking, one
pole of the permanent magnet is placed at one
end of the piece of steel and pulled the full
length of the steel. At the end of the stroke the
magnet is lifted away from the steel and before
starting the second stroke the magnet is again
placed at the original starting position. After
repeating this several times the steel will
become magnetized.
 The magnet will cause the tiny molecules to
arrange themselves with all of the poles facing
the same direction. This is called magnetic
Induction.
 Vibration
 If a bar magnet is held out of alignment with the
Earth’s magnetic field (so that its influence is
opposing the magnetism of the bar), vibration of
the bar will tend to de-magnetize it. This supports
the molecular and domain theories, suggesting
that vibration excites the atoms. Care should be
taken to ensure that industrial magnets are not
demagnetized by vibration.

Deliberate De-magnetizing of a magnet

 Deliberate demagnetization of a magnet can be
efficiently achieved by placing it in an alternating
current field or by heating it
 Magnetic lines of force (flux) penetrate any
material and there is no magnetic insulator.
 a ferromagnetic material, of high permeability,
placed in the field of a magnet will distort the
field. The flux finds such materials a better
path than air. This can be utilized to protect
equipment sensitive to magnetic fields.
 A magnetic shield or screen can be built
around an equipment to divert the field and
keep it away from the equipment
 FERROMAGNETIC
• Very easily can be magnetized by external magnetic field.
• Magnetized in the same direction (polarity) of the external
magnetic field.
• Permeability, μ > 100
• Iron, steel, cobalt, nickel, permalloy, chrome, tungsten,
molybdenum, mumetal, and ferrites.
• Used for strong permanent magnets.

 PARAMAGNETIC
• Strong external magnetic field is required.
• Magnetized in the same direction of the external field.
• Permeability, μ > or = 1 but < 100
• Aluminium, chromium, platinum, air, liquid oxygen
 DIAMAGNETIC
• Very strong external magnetic field required to
magnetize slightly.
• Magnetized in the opposite direction of external
magnetic field.
• Permeability, μ < 1
• Copper, silver, gold, mercury, argon, bismuth, water,
and zinc.
• Not used.
 Electromagnets are produced when a magnetic field is
created using an electric current. The magnetic field
strength increases when the conductor is wound into a
coil. Most electromagnet conductors are wound into
coils to create the desired magnetic field strength.
 When a soft-iron core is placed in a coil, an
electromagnet is produced.
 A typical electromagnet is made by winding many
turns of insulated wire on a soft-iron core wrapped
with an insulating material.
 The turns of wire are placed as close as possible
together to help prevent magnetic lines of force from
passing between the turns.
 The strength of an electromagnet is directly
proportional to the current carried by the wire coil
and to the number of turns of the coil. Thus, when
the current through the coil or the number of wire
wraps around the coil increases, the
electromagnet’s strength also increases

 Also, use of a core material of high permeability

will increase an electromagnet’s strength. The
same electromagnet using a core of low
permeability would have a decreased magnetic
strength. Other factors also affect an
electromagnet’s strength, although they are
negligible for most general-purpose applications.
 If a current-carrying wire is bent into a loop,
the loop assumes the properties of a magnet;
that is, one side of the loop will be a north pole,
and the other side will be a south pole.
 If a soft-iron core is placed in the loop, the
magnetic lines of force will traverse the iron
core, which will become an electro-magnet.
When a wire is made into a coil and connected
to a source of power, the fields of the separate
turns join and thread through the entire coil.
EDDY CURRENT
 Eddy current is induced current in the metal parts of
electrical machines, which causes heat loss.
Induction Heating
 Heat is produced in magnetic materials when
alternating current is applied.
 In the example, current is induced into the material to
be heated. Electromagnetic Induction is caused by the
application of alternating current to the heating coil.
The material to be heated must be a conductor and
current is induced into it. A high-frequency ac source is
used to produce higher heat output.
 The high-speed magnetic field created by the high-
frequency ac source moves across the material to be
heated. The induced voltage causes circulating currents
called eddy currents to flow in the material
 A bar magnet tends to self-demagnetized with
age. This is presumably caused by the
concentration of field at the pole influencing
the domains and discharging them.
 A soft iron bar (keeper) placed across the poles
can divert the field externally by providing the
magnetic flux with an easy path between poles.
The magnet will retain its greatest strength for
a longer period of time if keepers are used. Bar
magnets should always be stored in pairs with
a north pole and a south pole placed together
to make a complete path for magnetic flux.
 Inductor - a passive electrical device that
stores energy in a magnetic field, typically by
combining the effects of many loops of electric
current.

 Inductance is the property of a circuit that

opposes changes of current flow.

 counter-electromotive force (CEMF) - Any coil

of wire has inductance and it oppose current
changes by producing a counter voltage,
 Reactive - used to describe a coil’s reaction to
changes in applied voltage.

 Inductive reactance - The opposition to current

flow in an ac circuit created by an inductor.

 measured in ohms (Ω).

Faraday’s Law is stated as follows:
 When a coil of wire moves across the lines of
force of a magnetic field, electrons flow
through the wire in one direction. When the
coil of wire moves across the magnetic lines of
force in the opposite direction, electrons flow
through the wire in the opposite direction.

 Faraday’s law describes the principle of

electrical power generation produced by
magnetism.
 A loop of wire is rotated through a magnetic field. The
position of the loop inside the magnetic field determines the
amount of induced current and voltage.
 Placing a conductor inside a magnetic field can produce
electrical energy
The opposite sides of the loop move across the magnetic lines of force
in opposite directions. This movement causes an equal amount of
electrical current to flow in opposite directions through the two sides of
the loop. Notice the resulting output voltage at each position of the
loop.
The electrical current flows in one direction and then in the opposite
direction with every complete revolution of the conductor.
 The magnitude of the voltage induced in a coil by
electromagnetic induction is directly proportional to
the number of series-connected turns in the coil, and to
the rate of change of flux with respect to time.
 This relationship can be expressed mathematically as
 The minus sign indicates that the polarity of the generated
e.m.f. opposes the change .

 Electromagnetically induced voltages are produced by

either relative motion or transformer action. Voltages
generated by transformer action are due to flux varying
motion involving a moving coil and stationary magnet, or a
moving magnet and a stationary coil. Voltages caused by
relative motion are called speed voltages or “flux cutting”
voltages.

 The number of turns, N, is directly related to the length of

the conductor, l, moving through a magnetic field with flux
density, B. The rate of change of flux is dependant on the
velocity with which the conductor moves and cuts through
the flux field. Thus, the magnitude of the induced
(generated) e.m.f., e, is proportional to the flux density,
length of conductor and relative velocity between the field
and the conductor as follows:
 Lenz’s Law is stated as follows:
 The direction of an induced e.m.f. is always
such that it tends to set up a current opposing
the motion or the change of flux responsible
forinducing that e.m.f..
 The following steps describe the use of Lenz’s law to determine
the polarity and direction.

1. Find the direction of the existing B-field.

2. Determine if the existing B-field is increasing or decreasing.

3. If the existing field is increasing, the induced B-field is in the

opposite direction. If the existing field is decreasing, the
induced B-field is in the same direction.

4. Find the direction of the induced current needed to produce the

induced B-field.

5. If required, the direction of the induced EMF can be found by

noting that the induced current in #4 (above) flows from
positive to negative.
 When a conductor moves across a magnetic field, it will
have an e.m.f. induced within itself. Since the conductors in
the armature of a motor are cutting across a magnetic flied
as the armature rotates, an e.m.f. is produced in the
conductors, and this e.m.f. opposes the current being
applied to the armature from the outside source.

 This induced voltage is called counter e.m.f. or back e.m.f.,

and it reduces the amount of current flowing in the
armature. The net e.m.f. is the difference between the
applied e.m.f. and the counter e.m.f.. Counter e.m.f. plays a
large part in the design of a motor. As the speed of the
motor increases, the counter e.m.f. builds up and opposes
the applied e.m.f., thus reducing the current flow through
the armature.

 This explains the facts that there is a large surge of current

when a motor is first started and that the current then
rapidly falls off to a fraction of it initial value.
 The unit of inductance is termed the Henry
 A circuit has an inductance of 1 henry if an e.m.f. of 1 volt is
induced in the circuit when the current varies uniformly at
the rate of 1 ampere per second.

 The minus sign indicates that the direction of the induced

e.m.f. is opposite to that of the current increase.
 There is an alternative method of defining the unit of
inductance. A coil possesses an inductance of 1 henry if a
current of 1 ampere throughthe coil produces a flux-linkage
of 1 weber-turn.
 Thus
 Mutual induction is the magnetic field
interaction or flux linkage between coils.

 When switch S is closed, some of the flux produced by

the current in A becomes linked with C and the e.m.f.
induced in C circulates a momentary current through
galvanometer G.
 Similarly when S is opened, an e.m.f. is
induced in the reverse direction in C due to the
collapse of the flux. Since a change of current in
one coil is accompanied by a change of flux
linked with the other coil and therefore by an
e.m.f. induced in the latter, the two coils are
said to have mutual inductance.
 The unit of mutual inductance is the henry. If two circuits
possess a mutual inductance of M henrys and if the current
in the primary circuit increases by di ampere in dt second.

 The minus sign indicates that the induced e.m.f. tends

to circulate a current in the secondary circuit in the
direction to oppose the increase of flux due to the
increase of current in the primary circuit.
 If dφ weber is the increase of flux linked with
the secondary circuit due to the increase of di
ampere in the primary,
 where φ2 is the flux linked with the secondary circuit due to a
current I1 in the primary circuit.
 The amount of flux linkage is called the coefficient of coupling (k).
If all the lines of force of one coil cut across a nearby coil, it is
called unity coupling.
 When there is magnetic leakage, i.e. when all the flux due to
current in one coil is not linked with the other coil
 The inductance of an inductor depends on the
physical dimensions of the inductor (e.g. the
length and diameter of the winding), the
number of turns and the permeability of the
material of the core. The inductance of an
inductor is given by:
 The B-H curve illustrates the meaning of saturation. It
can be seen that beyond a certain value of H (point C).
There is a little increase in B; the iron is approaching
the saturation.

 Different materials saturate at different values of flux

density. At the saturation point, the permeability is
very small or zero, which indicates that the inductance
is very small.
 An electric motor is a device that changes electric
power to mechanical energy. DC motors are usually
rated based on horsepower. Voltage and amperage are
shown on the data plate.

 Electric motor are used in aircraft for many

applications including engine starters, cowl flips,
intercooler or heat-exchanger shutter or control valves,
landing gears and many more.
 Electric motors utilizes the principles of magnetism
and electromagnetic induction.
 The direction in which a current-carrying conductor in
a magnetic field tends to move away is determined by
the use of the right-hand motor rule.
Current Carrying Wires
 When a current-carrying coil is placed in a magnetic
field, the magnetic fields produced cause the coil to
rotate. The force that produces rotation is called
torque.

 The amount of torque developed in a coil depends on

several factors including, the strength of the magnetic
field, the number of turns in the coil, and the position
of the coil in the field.

 Torque is the technical basis governing the

construction of DC motors. A coil only rotates when it
is at a right angle (90°) to the magnetic field produced
by two magnets. Thus, a coil does not rotate when it is
lined up with the magnetic field because the torque at
that point is zero.
 The coil of a motor must rotate continuously in
order for the motor to operate efficiently.
Therefore, it is necessary for a device to reverse the
coil current just as the coil becomes parallel with
the magnet’s flux lines.

 When the current is reversed, torque is again

produced and the coil rotates. When a current-
reversing device is set up to reverse the current
each time the coil is about to stop, the coil rotates
continuously.

 A commutator is attached to reverse the current in

a coil. The current flowing through the coil
changes direction continuously as the coil rotates,
thus preserving torque.
 A more effective method of ensuring continuous
coil torque is to have a large number of coils
wound on an armature. When this is done, the
coils are spaced so that, for any position of the
armature, a coil is near both continuous and
strong. However, it also means that the
commutator must contain several segments.
 To further increase the amount of torque
generated, the armature is placed between the
poles of an electromagnet instead of a permanent
magnet to provide a much stronger magnetic field.
 Furthermore, the core of an armature is usually
made of soft iron that is strongly magnetized
through induction.
 The main components of a practical motor are:
1. ARMATURE ASSEMBLY
 The armature assembly consists of a soft iron core,
coils, and commutator mounted on a rotatable steel
shaft. The core consists of laminated stacks of soft iron
that are insulated from each other. Solid iron is not
used because it generates excessive heat that uses
energy needlessly.
 The armature windings are made of insulated copper
wire that is inserted into slots and protected by a fibre
paper that is sometimes referred to as fish paper. The
ends of the windings are physically connected to the
commutator segments with wedges or steel bands.
 The commutator consists of several copper segments
insulated from each other and the armature shaft by
pieces of mica. Insulated wedge rings hold the
segments in place.
2. FIELD ASSEMBLY
 consists of the field frame, a set of pole pieces and
field coils. The field frame is located along the
inner wall of the motor housing and contains the
laminated steel pole pieces on which the field coils
are wound. The field coils consist of several turns
of insulated wire that fit over each pole piece.
Some motors have as few as two poles, while
others have as many as eight.

3. BRUSH ASSEMBLY
 consists of brushes and their holders. The brushes
are usually made of small graphitic carbon blocks
because of its long service life. The brush holders
permit the brushes to move somewhat and utilise a
spring to hold them against the commutator.
4. END FRAME
 is the part of the motor that the armature assembly
rotates in. The armature shaft, which rides on bearings,
extends through one end frame and is connected to the
load. Sometimes the drive end frame is part of the unit
driven by the motor.

 TYPES OF DC MOTORS

1. PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTORS

 are used only when a low amount of torque is
required.
2. SERIES-WOUND DC MOTORS

 The armature and field circuits of the series-wound

motor are connected in series. There is only one path
for current flow. The field coils are wound with a few
turns of a large-diameter wire, which gives the field
circuit a low resistance. Changes in mechanical load
applied to the motor shaft changes the current flow
through the field. Current is directly proportional with
the load.
 Increased current results in a stronger magnetic field.
The speed of a series-wound motor varies from very
fast with no load to very slow with a heavy load
applied. A large current flows through the low-
resistance field. The series-wound motor produces a
high starting torque due to the large current flow.
Series-wound motors are used when heavy loads must
be moved.
3. SHUNT-WOUND DC MOTORS
 Shunt-wound DC motors are more commonly
used than any other type of DC motor. The field
coils of the shunt-wound motor are connected in
parallel with the armature and wound with many
turns of small diameter wire, which gives the field
a high resistance.
 The field coils provide a high-resistance parallel
path, which only allow a small amount of current
flow through the field. A strong electromagnetic
field is developed.
 The amount of current flow and the number of
turns affect the strength of an electromagnet. Most
of the current drawn by shunt motor flows in the
armature circuit path.
 The strength of the field is not affected by the armature
current. Motor speed is not affected by changes in load.
Speed of DC shunt-wound motors can be varied quite easily
by placing a low wattage field rheostat to provide variable
resistance in series with the field windings

 As the field resistance is increased, the field current will

decrease. A decrease in field current reduces the strength of
the electromagnetic field held around the field coils. When
the field strength is decreased, the motor will rotate faster
due to the weaker magnetic lines of force that the rotor
moves through.

 Shunt-wound dc motors have fairly constant speed with

changes in load. The speed decreases slightly when the
mechanical load increases due to increased voltage drop
across the armature circuit. Because of its constant speed
under load and its ease of speed control, the shunt-wound
dc motor is used mainly for industrial applications, such as
variable-speed machines and tools.
 Compound-wound dc motors have 2 sets of field
windings – one connected in series with the
armature and one in parallel. These motors are the
result of the combination of the desirable aspects
of the series-wound and shunt-wound motors.
They have high starting torque similar to a series-
wound motor. They also have constant speed
similar to a shunt-wound motor.

 Thus, compound-wound dc motors are used when

high torque and constant speed are needed.
Compound-wound motors are more expensive
than series-wound or shunt-wound dc motors.
 DC motors are designed so that their shaft will
rotate in either direction. To reverse the direction
of rotation of a dc motor, the terminal connections
of the armature windings or field windings are
reversed. Four terminals are used. They are
labelled A1 to A2 for the armature connections,
and F1 and F2 for the field connections.

 If either the armature connections or the field

connections are reversed, the rotation of the motor
will reverse. If both the armature and field
connections are reversed, the motor shaft will
rotate in the same direction. The relative direction
of current flow through the armature and field
circuits would still be the same.
 We can control the motor speed by varying the current in the field
windings. When the amount of current flowing through the field
windings is increased, the field strength increases. This causes the
armature windings to produce a larger counter EMF, which slows the
motor. Conversely, when the field current is decreased, the field strength
decreases, and the motor speeds up because the counter EMF is reduced.

 In a series motor, the rheostat speed control is connected in one of three

ways to cater for different operating speed ranges. The rheostat is either
connected in parallel or in series with the motor field, or in parallel with
the motor armature.

 We can reverse the direction of a DC motor’s rotation by reversing the

direction of current flow in either the armature or the field windings. In
both cases, this reverses the magnetism of either the armature or the
magnetic field the armature rotates in. If the wires connecting the motor
to an external source are interchanged, the direction of rotation is not
reversed since these wires reverse the magnetism of both the field and
armature and leaves the torque in the same direction.
 One method for reversing the direction of rotation
employs two field windings wound in opposite
directions on the same pole. This type of motor is
called a split field motor. A single-pole, double-throw
switch makes it possible to direct current to either of
the two windings.

 Some split field motors are built with two separate

field windings wound on alternate poles. An example
of this is the armature in a four-pole reversible motor.
In this configuration, the armature rotates in one
direction when current flows through one set of
windings and in the opposite direction when current
flows through the other set of windings. Another
method of reversal is called the switch method. This
type of motor reversal employs a double-pole, double-
throw switch that changes the direction of current flow
in either the armature or the field.
 generator is an equipment that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy by electromagnetic induction.
 Generators designed to produce direct current are called DC
Generators.
 DC GENERATOR THEORY:

 In a simple generator, two sides of a wire loop are arranged to rotate in a

magnetic field. When the sides of the loop are parallel to the magnetic
lines of flux, the induced voltage causes current to flow in one direction.
Maximum voltage is induced at this position because the wires are
cutting the lines of flux at right angles. This means that more lines of flux
per second are cut than in any other position relative to the magnetic
field.
 As the loop approaches the vertical position, the induced voltage
decreases. This is because both sides of the loop become perpendicular to
the lines of flux; therefore, fewer flux lines are cut.
 When the loop is vertical, the wires momentarily travel perpendicular to
the magnetic lines of flux and there is no induced voltage.
 As the loop continues to rotate, the number of flux lines being cut
increases until the 90° point is reached, where the number of flux
lines cut is maximum. Since each side of the loop is cutting the
lines of flux in the opposite direction, the direction, or polarity, of
the induced voltage is reversed. Rotation beyond the 90° point
again decreases the number of flux lines being cut until the
induced voltage becomes zero at the vertical position.

 the curve increases from a zero value at 0°, to a maximum positive

voltage at 90°. Once beyond 90° the curve decreases until it
reaches 180° where the output is again zero. As the curve
continues beyond 180° the amount of negative voltage produced
increases up to the 270° point where it is maximum. The amount
of negative voltage then decreases to the zero point at 360°.

 As you can see in the illustration, the output produced by a single

loop rotating in a magnetic field is alternating current. By
replacing the slip rings of the basic AC generator with two half-
cylinders, commonly referred to as a single commutator, a basic
DC generator is obtained.
 Starting with the armature at 0°, no lines of flux are cut and thus
no output voltage is obtained. Once the armature begins rotating,
the black brush and the white brush come into contact with the
black segment and white segment of the commutator respectively.
The lines of flux are cut at an increasing rate until the armature is
parallel to the lines of flux where the induced EMF is maximum.

 Once the armature completes 180° of rotation, no lines of flux are

being cut and the output voltage is again zero. At this point, both
brushes are contacting both the black and white segments on the
sides of the commutator. After the armature rotates past the 180°
point, the brushes contact only one side of the commutator and
the lines of flux are again cut at an increasing rate.

 The switching of the commutator allows one brush to always be in

contact with that portion of the loop that travels downward
through the lines of flux and the other brush to always be in
contact with the half of the loop that travels upward. Although the
current reverses its direction in the loop of a DC generator, the
commutator action causes current to flow in the same direction.
 The variation in DC voltage is called ripple, and is reduced
by adding more loops. As the number of loops increases,
the variation between the maximum and minimum values
of voltage is reduced, and the closer the output voltage
resembles pure DC.

 The number of commutator segments increases as the

number of armature loops increases. For example, one loop
requires two commutator segments, two loops require four
segments, and four loops require eight segments.

 The voltage induced in a single-turn loop is small.

Increasing the number of loops does not increase the
maximum value of the generated voltage. However,
increasing the number of turns in each loop does increase
the voltage value. This is because voltage is obtained as an
average only from the peak values. The closer the peaks are
to each other, the higher the generated voltage value.
 The major parts, or assemblies, of a DC generator
include the:
1. FIELD FRAME
 The field frame, or yoke, constitutes the foundation for
the generator.
 The frame has two primary functions:

1. It completes the magnetic circuit between the poles

2. It acts as a mechanical support for the other parts.
 In small generators, the frame is made of one piece of
iron; however, in larger generators, it is usually made
up of two parts bolted together. The frame is highly
permeable and, together with the pole pieces, forms the
majority of the magnetic circuit.
 The magnetizing force inside a generator is produced
by an electromagnet consisting of a wire coil called a
field coil and a core called a field pole, or shoe. The
pole shoes are bolted to the inside of the frame and
are usually laminated to reduce eddy current losses
and concentrate the lines of force produced by the field
coils. The frame and pole shoes are made from high
quality magnetic iron or sheet steel.

 There is always an even number of poles in a generator

as there is always one North Pole for each South Pole.
The pole shoes project from the frame since air offers a
great deal of resistance to a magnetic field. Most
generator designs reduce the length of air gap between
the poles and the rotating armature. This increases the
efficiency of the generator. When the pole pieces are
made to project inward from the frame, they are called
salient poles.
2. ARMATURE
 The armature assembly consists of the armature coils,
the commutator, and other associated mechanical
parts. The armature is mounted on a shaft that rotates
in bearings located in the generator’s end frames.

 The core of the armature acts as a conductor when it is

rotated in the magnetic field and it is laminated to
prevent eddy currents circulation.

 A drum-type armature has coils placed in slots in the

core of the armature. However, there is no electrical
connection between the coils and core. The coils are
usually held in the slots by wooden or fiber wedges.
The coil ends are brought out to individual segments of
the commutator.
 The commutator is located at one end of the armature and
consists of wedge-shaped segments of hard-drawn copper.
Each segment is insulated from the other by a thin sheet of
mica. Steel V-rings or clamping flanges fitted with bolts
holds the segments in place. Rings of mica also insulate the
segments from the flanges. The raised portion of each
segment is called the riser, and the leads from the armature
coils are soldered to each riser.

 In some generators, the segments have no risers. In this

situation the leads are soldered to short slits in the ends of
the segments. One end of a single armature coil attaches to
one commutator segment while the other end is soldered to
the adjacent segment. In this configuration, each coil laps
over the preceding one. This is known as lap winding.
When an armature rotates at operational speed, the
magnetic fields that it produces lags behind the speed of
rotation. Lap winding is a method for stabilizing these
armature magnetic fields.
3. BRUSHES
 Brushes on the commutator surface functions as
the electrical contact between armature coils and
an external circuit. A flexible braided copper
conductor, called a pigtail, to the external circuit,
connects each brush.

 The brushes are made of high-grade carbon and

held in place by spring-loaded brush holders that
are insulated from the frame. The brushes are free
to slide up and down in their holders so they can
follow any irregularities in the commutator’s
surface and allow for wear. The brushes’ position
is typically adjustable so that the pressure on the
commutator can be varied, and so the brush
position with respect to the risers can be changed
as necessary.
 One of the conveniently controlled factors that determine a
generator’s voltage output is the strength of the field
current. A rheostat can be installed in the field coil circuit to
control the field coil current.

 When the rheostat is set to increase the resistance in the field

circuit, less current flows through the field coils and the
magnetic field strength decreases. Lesser voltage is induced
into the armature as a result and the generator output
decreases. On the other hand, if the rheostat increases the
resistance in the field circuit, more current flows through the
field coils and increases the magnetic field. This induces
more voltage in to the armature and produces a greater
output voltage. It is easier to turn the armature when the
magnetic field is weaker.
 More force is required to turn the armature when the
magnetic field strength is increased. Thus, additional
field current must be supplied to increase the voltage
output and overcome the additional force required to
turn the armature when the load on the generator
increases.

 A solenoid can be added to electronically connect or

remove the field rheostat from the circuit as the voltage
varies. This setup is commonly used in a vibrating-type
voltage regulator.
 functions as a rotating reversing switch, which
ensures that the e.m.f. generated by the loop is
reversed after rotating through 180°.
 A starter generator is a combination of a generator
and a starter in one housing. Starter generators are
typically employed on small turboprop and
turbine-powered aircraft.

 Most starter generators contain at least two sets of

field windings and only one armature winding.
While in the start mode, the starter generator
employs a low-resistance series field. At this time a
high current flows through both the field and
armature windings, producing the high torque
required to start the engine. In the generator mode,
the starter generator is capable of supplying direct
current of up to 300A at 28.5 V dc to the aircraft’s
electrical system.
 To generate electric power, the shunt winding of the
starter-generator is energised, and the series field is de-
energised. The shunt winding is a relatively high-
resistance coil that produces the magnetic field that
induces voltage into armature. The voltage produced
in the armature sends current to the aircraft bus, where
it is distributed to the various loads of the aircraft.

Typical starter generator

 Alternating current (ac) has been increasingly
employed in powering aircraft systems. Almost all
modern transport category aircraft employ an ac
power system.

 Alternating current is defined as current that

changes direction periodically and changes
magnitude continuously. Both the current and
voltage start at zero, building up to a maximum in
one direction, fall back to zero, building up to a
maximum in the opposite direction.

 For practical purposes, the values of an ac are

indicated by a sine wave.
 which represents voltage or current through the
alternating cycle. One cycle begins at 0° and ends at
360°. The value of the ac is zero at 0°, 180° and 360°. It
is maximum in one direction at 90° and maximum in
the other direction at 270°. One cycle ends at 360° and
another cycle begins.
 Refer to time or difference between one point and
another. When two sine wave voltages reach their zero
and maximum values simultaneously, they are in
phase.
 If the voltages reach their zero and maximum values at
different times, they are “out of phase”. For two
alternating waveforms that are “out of phase”, the
phase difference is given in degrees.
PERIOD (TIME)
 Period is the time required to complete one ac
cycle.

FREQUENCY
 Frequency is the reciprocal of the period. It is
the number of complete ac cycles per second,
measured in hertz. One hertz is one cycle per
second.
 The frequency of the alternating current
produced by a generator is determined by the
number of pairs of magnetic poles in the
generator and the speed in revolutions per
minute of the rotating coils. The frequency may
be obtained by the formula
CYCLE
 A cycle is one complete sequence of events that causes
one complete pattern of alternating current from a zero
reference, in a positive direction, back to zero, then in a
negative direction, and back to zero.
PEAK VOLTAGE (VPeak)
 The peak voltage (VPeak) is the maximum positive or
negative value of voltage in either the positive or the
negative direction.

Peak Voltage
VPeak = 1.41 x Vrms
AVERAGE VOLTAGE (Vave)
 The average value of all the instantaneous values
of a sine-wave voltage in half a cycle is given by
the formula:
Vave = Vpeak × 0.637
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VOLTAGE (Vrms)
 The root mean square value of an ac sine-wave
voltage (Vrms) is the voltage, which has the same
heating effect as an equal value of dc voltage. It is
calculated by first taking the squares of all the
instantaneous voltage values in half a cycle and
then taking the square root of this average. This
value is 0.707 of the peak value. It is called the
effective value.
Vrms = Vpeak × 0.707
INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE (Vi)
 Instantaneous voltage (Vi) is the voltage induced at a
specific time, given by the formula,
 Vi = Vpeak x sin θ

 Vpeak is the maximum voltage induced into the

conductor.
 The symbol theta (θ) is the angle of rotation.
PEAK-TO-PEAK VOLTAGE (VP-P)
 Peak-to-Peak voltage is the value of ac sine-wave
voltage from positive peak to negative peak, and is
equal to two times the peak value.
 VP-P = 2 x Vpeak

SQUARE WAVES
 A square wave is a non-sinusoidal wave. A non-
sinusoidal wave or complex wave does not follow the
sine curve in amplitude variations. Its form is not
necessary symmetrical, and it may be composed of
more than one frequency.
 A square wave contains a fundamental frequency and odd
harmonics. The even multiples are known as even
harmonics while and the odd multiples are known as odd
harmonics.

 The harmonic content of a square wave is the third, fifth,

seventh, ninth, and so on. A square wave can be formed by
adding the odd harmonics to a fundamental frequency.

 The harmonics will not have the same amplitude as the

fundamental. The third harmonic’s amplitude is 1/3 of the
fundamental, the fifth harmonic’s amplitude 1/5 of the
fundamental, and so on.

 As more harmonics are added, this process will continue

until a nearly perfect square wave is produced.
 Triangle waveforms are formed by voltage or current ramps. A
ramp is a linear increase or decrease in the voltage or current.
 A ramp is a linear increase or decrease in the voltage or current. In
part (a), the positive slope; in part (b), the ramp has a negative
slope. The slope of a voltage ramp is + V/t and is expressed in
units of V/s. The slope of a current ramp is + I/t and is expressed
in units of A/s.
 Triangular waveform is composed of positive-going and negative-
going ramps having equal slopes. The period of this waveform is
measured from one peak to the next corresponding peak. This
particular triangular waveform is alternating and has an average
value of zero.
 The frequency for triangular waves is determined in the same way
as for sine waves, that is f = 1/T.
SINGLE PHASE PRINCIPLES
 A single-phase ac voltage is produced by single-phase ac
generators or obtained across two power lines of a three-phase
system. A single phase ac source has a hot wire and a neutral wire
to carry electrical current. The neutral is grounded for prevention
of electrical shocks.

THREE PHASE PRINCIPLES

 A three-phase ac source has three power lines, which carry
electrical current. Three-phase voltages are produced by three-
phase generators at power plants.
 Three-phase voltage is a combination of three single-phase
voltages, which are electrically connected. This voltage is similar
to three single phase ac sine waves separated in phase by 120°. A
three-phase wave system has a neutral connection while a three-
phase delta system does not.
 RESISTIVE CIRCUITS

 Resistive Circuit Waveform

 The understanding of the vector diagram is helpful when working
with ac circuits. Rather than using waveforms to show phase
relationships, it is easier to use vector diagrams. Vectors are
straight lines that have specific direction and length (magnitude)
and are used to represent voltage and current values in ac circuits
 A horizontal line is drawn when beginning a vector
diagram. Its left end is the reference point. For
inductive circuits, the current vectors are drawn in a
clockwise direction from the voltage vector, which
indicates that voltage leads current in an inductive
circuit.

 For the capacitive circuits, the current vectors are

drawn in anticlockwise direction from the voltage
vectors, which indicate that current leads voltage in a
capacitive circuit.
 Resistance (R) and capacitance reactance (Xc) are 90°
apart. Their angle of intersection forms a right angle.
The law of right triangles, known as the Pythagorean
theorem, can be used to solve circuit problems.
 The theorem states that “in right triangle”, the square
of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides”.
 By using trigonometric relationships as listed
below, problems dealing with phase angles, power
factor, and reactive power in an ac circuits can be
solved.

Formula for Right Angle Triangle

SERIES AC CIRCUITS
 In the series circuit, the current is the same in all parts of the
circuit. The voltages must be added by using a voltage
triangle. Impedance (Z) of a series ac circuit is found by
using an impedance triangle. Power values are found by
using a power triangle.
 Series RL circuits are commonly used in electronic
equipment. When an ac voltage is applied to a series RL
circuit, current through each component is the same. The
voltage drops across each component distribute according
to the values of resistance (R) and inductive reactance (XL)
in the circuit.
 The total opposition to current flow in any ac circuit is called
impedance (Z). Both resistance and reactance in an ac circuit
oppose current flow. The impedance of a series RL circuit is
found by using either of these formulas:
 The impedance of a series RL circuit is found by using
an impedance triangle. This right triangle is formed by
the three quantities that oppose ac. A triangle is also
used to compare voltage drop in series RL circuits.
 Inductive voltage (VL) leads resistive voltage (VR) by
90°. VA is the voltage applied to the circuit. Because
these values form a right triangle, the values of VA may
be found by the using the formula
 The basic formulas used in parallel ac circuits are
different from those of series circuits. Impedance (Z) of
a parallel circuit is less than individual branch values
of resistance, inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance.
 When components are connected in parallel, finding impedance
(Z) is more difficult. An impedance triangle cannot be used. A
method that can be used to find impedance is to use an
admittance triangle.
 The following quantities are plotted on the triangle:
Admittance :
 Z
 Y=1
Conductance :
 R
 G=1
Inductive Susceptance :
 L
 LX
 B=1
Capacitive Susceptance :
 C
 cX
 B=1

 These quantities are the inverse of each type of

opposition to ac. Because total impedance (Z) is the
smallest quantity in a parallel ac circuit, it
reciprocal (1/Z) becomes the largest quantity on
the admittance triangle (just as ½ is larger than ¼).
The values are in Siemens.

 In parallel circuit, the applied voltage is used as

reference.
Calculation of Reactances and Resistances
 Values of impedance (Z) for all components

 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS
POWER FACTOR
 The power factor of the circuit is defined as the ratio of
true power to apparent power; it is numerically equal
to the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage
phasor and the current phasor.
 The power factor formula:
PHASE ANGLE
 The more inductive or capacitive causes a large phase angle.
In a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, a 90° phase angle
causes a power factor of zero. The power factor varies
according to the values of resistance and reactance in a
circuit. There are two types of power that affect power
conversion in ac circuits. Power conversion in the resistive
part of the circuit is called active power or true power.

POWER TRIANGLE:
 The in-phase component is called the active, wattful or
working component (kW) and the quadrature component is
the idle, wattles or reactive component (KVAR). The
importance of these components will be the apparent power.
 Most ac generators are designed to take a proportion of the
reactive component of current through their windings and
some indication of this may be obtained from the
information given on the generator data plate
 A transformer is a device used to increase or decrease the
voltage in an ac circuit by means of electromagnetic
induction. Frequency of the AC power remains the same. A
transformer has no moving parts. There is no electrical
connection between the two circuits; however, there is a
mechanical connection.

Examples of Transformers

Examples of Transformers
 A typical transformer consists of the following
3 main parts.

• The primary winding

• The secondary winding
• The core
 Two main classifications of transformers,
namely the
1. step-up transformers
2. step-down transformers.
 The main method to overcome these wasteful
eddy currents in transformer cores is to form
the iron core with individual sheets that are
coated with an insulating varnish.

Overcoming “Eddy Current”

 The exciting current can be divided into two right-angle
components:
• A core-loss component that supplies the hysteresis and eddy
current losses in the iron
• A magnetizing component that establishes the mutual flux (φm)
that links both primary and secondary windings.
 Because of the low value of exciting current, the
voltage drop due to winding resistance at no-load is
insignificant, and thus is not shown on the diagram.
 When a load device is connected across the secondary winding of
a transformer, voltage is induced into the secondary winding and
causes current to flow through the secondary and the load. This
current produces a flux field about the secondary (shown as
broken lines), which is in opposition to the flux field about the
primary (Lenz's law).

 Thus, the flux about the secondary cancels some of the flux about
the primary. With less flux surrounding the primary, the counter
emf is reduced and more current is drawn from the source. The
additional current in the primary generates more lines of flux,
nearly reestablishing the original number of total flux lines.

 The magnetic field produced by the current in the secondary

interacts with the magnetic field produced by the current in the
primary. This interaction results from the mutual inductance
between the primary and secondary windings.
 Transformers can be used to transform impedance as
well as voltage and current. When this is done to
improve power transfer to a load, it is called
impedance matching.

 Impedance transformation is a highly useful ability of

transformers as it allows a load to dissipate its full
rated power even if the power system is not at the
proper voltage to directly do so.
 The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that
maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a
load resistance when that load resistance is equal to the
Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network supplying
the power.
 In the case for ac circuits, the word “impedance” is
used instead of “resistance”.
 Impedance mismatch occurs, resulting in very
poor (low peak power) performance.
Additionally, the amplifier would tend to
dissipate more than its fair share of power in
the form of heat trying to drive the low
impedance speaker

 To make this system work better, we can use a

transformer to match these mismatched
impedances. A step-down transformer is used
to connect between a high impedance (high
voltage, low current) supply to a low
impedance (low voltage, high current) load.
 Use of an impedance “matching” transformer for maximum
power transfer

 the speaker will load the amplifier to just the right degree,
drawing power at the correct voltage and current levels to
satisfy the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem and make for
the most efficient power delivery to the load. The use of a
transformer in this capacity is called impedance matching.
 Transformers are efficient electrical devices.
Typical efficiency rating for a transformer is
approximately 98%. The efficiency of a
transformer is calculated using the following
formula.
Typical Current and Potential Transformer Connection
 Some transformers have more than one
secondary winding. These are called multiple
secondary transformers. Some are step-up and
some are step-down windings, depending on
the application.
 Autotransformers have only one winding.
Thus, they function either as a step-up or step-
down transformer depending on their
connections.
 Variable autotransformers are used in power
supplies to provide adjustable ac voltages.
ELECTRICAL GENERATOR BASICS
 Used to produce electrical energy from
mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is
used to move electrical conductors (turns of
wire) through a magnetic field inside the
generator.
 All generators operate due to electromagnetic
induction. A generator has a stationary part
and a rotating part housed inside a machine
assembly. The stationary part is called the
stator and the rotating part is called the rotor.
The generator has magnetic field poles of north
and south polarities.
 Generators use a prime mover that is connected to the
generator shaftto produce rotary motion (mechanical
energy). Rotating conductors are electrically connected
to an external circuit through a slip ring or commutator
and brush assembly.
 Slip rings are used with ac generators, similar to the
use of commutators with dc generators. Slip rings are
made of solid sections of copper and the commutator is
made of several copper sections, which are separated
from each other.
 These assemblies are permanently mounted on the
shaft of a generator and are connected to the ends of
the rotor conductors. A circuit is complete when a load
is connected to a generator. Electrical power is
produced with all the generator parts working
together.
 AC generators are rated, however, not in watts,
but in volt-amps (VA), which is a measure of
the apparent power produced by the generator.

 The ratings is generally expressed in KVA (kilo

volt-amperes) as the outputs of most large
aircraft generators can be quite large The
reason for using this rating is that it is the
heating effect of the current in the generator
windings that limits generator output, and this
current flows in the windings whether it is
producing power or not.
 The number of poles and the speed of the rotor determine the
frequency of alternating current produced by an AC generator.
The faster the speed, the higher the frequency becomes. The more
poles on the rotor, the higher the frequency will be for any given
speed. The frequency in cycle per second (hertz) is related to the
number of poles and the speed, as expressed by the equation.
 The ends of the conductor are connected to slip
rings and brushes.
 The slip rings are mounted on the same shaft as
the conductor.
 Carbon brushes are used to make contact with the
slip rings.
 The electrical current induced into the conductor
flows through the slip rings to the brushes.
 When the conductor turns half a revolution,
electrical current flows in one direction through
the slip rings and the meter.
 During the next half-revolution of the coil, the
positions of the two sides of the conductor are
opposite. The direction of the induced current is
now reversed as current now flows through the
meter in the opposite direction.
 The conductors that make up the rotor of a
generator have many turns.
 The generated voltage depends on the number of
turns of wire used, the strength of the magnetic
field, and the speed of the prime mover used to
rotate the machine.
 Electromagnetic induction occurs when a
conductor passes through a magnetic field and
cuts across lines of force
 As the conductor cuts across the flux lines, the
magnetic field develops a force on the electrons
of the conductor.
 The polarity of the induced voltage is
determined by the direction of the electron
movement.
 The right hand rule is used to determine the
direction of current flow. The amount of
voltage induced into a conductor cutting across
a magnetic field depends on the number of
lines of force cut in a given time.
 This value is determined by the following three
factors:
• The speed of the relative motion between the
magnetic field and the conductor
• The strength of the magnetic field
• The length of the conductor passed through the
magnetic field. If the speed of the conductor
cutting the magnetic lines of force is increased, the
generated voltage increases.
 If the strength of the magnetic field is increased,
the induced voltage also increases. A longer
conductor allows the magnetic field to induce
more voltage into the conductor.
 The induced voltage increases when each of the
three quantities listed is increased.
 Generator action depends on the relative motion of
conductors with respect to lines of force. Alternators
can be constructed with a stationary field and a
moving armature or with a stationary armature and a
moving field.
Thus, there are two types of AC generators:
1. Revolving-armature type
 type alternator is similar in construction to the DC
generator in that the armature rotates through a
stationary magnetic field. In the DC generator, the
generated e.m.f. in the armature winding is converted
into DC by means of the commutator; whereas in the
alternator, the generated AC is brought to the load
unchanged, by means of slip rings.
2. Revolving-field type
 type of alternator has a stationary armature
winding and a rotating field winding. The
advantage of having a stationary armature
winding is that the generated voltage can be
connected directly to the load. Fixed connections
are much more easily insulated than would be slip
rings at very high voltages; so high-voltage
alternators are usually of the revolving field type.
Since the voltage applied to the rotating field is
low DC voltage, the problems of “arc-over” etc at
the slip rings are considerable reduced. More
efficient cooling is possible as armature windings
are less concentrated.
 AC generators are usually called alternators.
But unlike DC generators, they must be driven
at a very definite constant speed because the
speed determines the frequency of the
generated emf.
 The speed is usually referred to as the
synchronous speed, for which reason these
machines are frequently called synchronous
alternators or synchronous generators.
 Single-phase electrical power is often used and
is produced by single phase generators. Note
that single-phase electrical power may also
come from three-phase generators.
 The voltage induced into the conductors of the
armature varies with the change of the sine of
the angle rotation between the conductors and
magnetic field. The voltage induced at a
specific time is called instantaneous voltage
(Vi). Voltage induced into an armature
conductor at a specific time is calculated using
the following formula:
 The frequency of the voltage produced by
alternators is usually 400 Hz. A cycle of ac is
generated when the rotor moves one complete
revolution (360°). Cycles per second or hertz
(Hz) refers to the number of revolutions per
second.
 A two-phase generator is basically a single-phase
generator with a second separate conductor winding
added and separated by 90°. Both windings are
mounted on the same rotor and therefore rotate at the
same speed. Winding A is 90° ahead of winding B in
the direction of rotation. As they rotate, two induced
sinusoidal voltages are produced that are 90° apart in
phase.
 A two-phase AC generator can produce more power
when compared with a single-phase AC generator of
similar size, This is because the two-phase AC
generator can produce two positive and two negative
pulses per cycle compared to one positive and one
negative pulse from a single-phase generator.
 Thus, over a period of time, a multi-phase supply will
transmit a more evenly distributed power. This in
turn,results in a higher overall efficiency.
 A polyphase generator has three separate stator
windings placed at 120° intervals around the
rotor, which generates three sinusoidal
voltages that are separated from each other by
phase angles of 120°.
 the interconnections of the coils to form a 3- phase
system and the phase sequence. The output
terminals of generators are marked to show the
phase sequence. In a practical three-phase system,
the three output voltages are identified by the
colours red, yellow and blue or by letters A, B and
C respectively

 Three-phase systems have several advantages over

single-phase machines. They make more efficient
use of materials and therefore are not as expensive
as single-phase equipment of the same rating.
Much of the space within a single-phase generator
is wasted
 Each phase of a three-phase generator may be used
for separate terminals and supply separate groups
of consumer services. This arrangement is seldom
used in practice since pairs of “line” wires are
required for each phase and would involve
uneconomic use of cable. The phases are, therefore,
interconnected normally by either of the following
two methods:
• Star connection (also known as Wye connection)
 The connection of three-phase AC generator,
rather than having six leads from the three-phase
alternator, one of the leads from each phase may
be connected to form a common junction. The
stator is then called Y-star-connected.
• Delta connection
 The common lead may or may not be brought
out of the AC generator. If it is brought out it is
called the neutral lead. A three-phase stator can
also be connected so that the phases are
connected end to end. This arrangement is
called a delta connection.
Delta Connection
 The internal voltage of a delta machine is greater
than the internal voltage of a star connected
machine. Larger voltage requires larger insulation,
which causes a slight increase in weight and size of
coils.
 A delta-connected machine has a smaller phase
current, and therefore lesser I2R losses. If one
phase of a delta winding opens up, there will be no
effect on the output voltage (since the other two
windings are connected so that they can supply the
load), but the total current through the system
must be reduced to 57.7% of the rated current to
prevent overheating of the remaining active
phases. This allows a selective reduction in system
loads.
Star (or Wye) Connection
 For a given amount of line voltage and line
current, the wye generator has a larger current.
More power is lost inside the generator in the
form of heat.
 The manufacturing and rewinding of a wye
connected machine is easier due to the less
complex connections of the windings.
 If one phase of a wye connected machine opens
up, two of the three output voltages will go to
zero volts. The star connection thus does not
allow a selection of which loads to remove.
Two thirds of the loads on that generator will
lose power.
 For a delta connection, each pair of output cables is
connected across a single-phase of the delta-connected
generator. This implies that the phase and line voltages
must be equal. The current passing through any output
cable is supplied by the two phases connected to the
cable.
 Recall that the voltages produced by the phases are
120° out of phase with each other, so the currents
associated with them are also 120° out-of-phase.
 For a delta connection, it can be similarly work out
that,
 In practice many alternators create the field by using a
DC feed through slip rings to the rotor windings.
However, the field may also exist in the form of
permanent magnets in the case of Permanent Magnet
Generator (PMG).
 AC generator that is constructed using a rotating
rectifier and a PMG in a “brushless” arrangement.
 The PMG is driven at 8000 rpm from the engine and
produces an output of 120V at 800Hz, which is fed to
the PMG rectifier unit. The PMG rectifier output is then
fed to the voltage regulator, which provides current for
the primary exciter field winding.
 The primary exciter field induces current into a three-
phase rotor winding. The output of this winding is
then fed to three shaft-mounted rectifier diodes to
produce a pulsating DC output to be fed to the rotating
field winding.
 The main exciter winding is wound to form six poles in
order to produce an output at 400Hz. The output
voltage from the stator windings in typically 115V
phase, 200V line at 20kVA, or more. An important
point to note is that the excitation system forms an
integral part of the rotor and that there is no direct
electrical connection between the stator and rotor.
 AC motors are particularly well suited for
constant-speed applications, since the speed is
determined by the AC frequency applied to the
motor terminals. However, AC motors with
variable speed characteristics within certain
limits are also available.
 AC motors can be designed to operate from
either a single-phase AC supply or from a
polyphase AC supply. Regardless the phase of
the motor, it operates on the same principle
that the AC applied to the motor generates a
rotating magnetic field, which in turn causes
the rotor of the motor to turn.
 AC motors can generally be classified into two
main types:
1.Synchronous Motor
 The synchronous motor is an alternator operated
as a motor, in which A.C. is applied to the stator
and DC is applied to the rotor.
2. Induction Motor
 The induction motor differs from the synchronous
motor in that its rotor is not connected to any
source of power.
 Of the two types of A.C. motors mentioned, the
induction motor is by far the most commonly
used.
 At any instant, the magnetic field generated by one
particular phase is dependant on the current through
that phase. When there is no current, the magnetic field
is zero. If the current is a maximum, the magnetic field
is a maximum. Since the currents in the three windings
are 120° out of phase, the magnetic fields generated
will also be 120° out of phase.
 At any instant, the three magnetic fields will combine
to produce one field that acts on the rotor. From one
instant to the next, the magnetic fields combine to
produce a magnetic field whose position is shifting. At
the end of one complete cycle of AC. the magnetic field
will have shifted through 360°, or one complete
revolution.
 Thus, the application of three-phase AC to three
windings symmetrically spaced around a stator
generates a rotating magnetic field.
 The synchronous motor derives its name because its rotor is
synchronised with the rotating field set up by the stator.

 The application of three-phase AC to the stator causes a

rotating magnetic field to be set up around the rotor. But
since the rotor is energised with dc, it will act like a bar
magnet. If a bar magnet is suspended in a magnetic field it
will turn until it lines up with the magnetic field.

 In the same way, the energised rotor of a synchronous

motor, acting like a magnet, will line up with the magnetic
field caused by the application of three-phase AC to the
stator. If the magnetic field turns, the rotor will turn with the
field. If the rotating magnetic field is strong, it will exert a
strong turning force on the rotor, which will therefore be
able to turn a load as it rotates.
 The speed of rotation of the magnetic field
depends on the frequency of the three-phase AC
supply. Since the supply frequency is fixed,
synchronous motors are, in practice, single-speed
motors. They are used for loads that require
constant speed from no-load right through to the
full-load condition.
 One of the disadvantages of a synchronous motor
is that it cannot be started from a standstill by
applying three-phase AC to the stator. A high-
speed rotating field appears when the instant AC
is applied to the stator. This rotating field rushes
past the rotor poles so quickly that the rotor does
not have a chance to get started; it is repelled first
in one direction and then in the other.
 In other words, a synchronous motor in its pure form has no
starting torque. It is usually started with the help of a small
induction motor, or with windings equivalent to this incorporated
in the synchronous motor.
 When the rotor has reached synchronous speed with help from
the starting device, it is connected to a dc voltage source to get it
energized. The rotor then falls into step and turns with the
rotating field.

Three-Phase Synchronous Motor

 One of the disadvantages of a synchronous motor is that it
cannot be started from a standstill by applying three-phase
AC to the stator. A high-speed rotating field appears when
the instant AC is applied to the stator. This rotating field
rushes past the rotor poles so quickly that the rotor does not
have a chance to get started; it is repelled first in one
direction and then in the other.
 a synchronous motor in its pure form has no starting torque.
It is usually started with the help of a small induction motor,
or with windings equivalent to this incorporated in the
synchronous motor.
 When the rotor has reached synchronous speed with help
from the starting device, it is connected to a dc voltage
source to get it energized.
 The rotor then falls into step and turns with the rotating
field.
 A single-phase AC can also be applied to a stator winding to
produce a pulsating magnetic field that can also be used to
drive a motor. Every time a rotor pole approaches a stator
winding, the direction of the stator field must be oriented to
attract the pole and give it a torque in the direction of its
motion.
 Thus, the field current in a stator winding must pass
through half a cycle in the interval between rotor poles of
opposite polarity approaching the winding.
 Three-phase ac synchronous motors are highly specialized
motors. They are constant-speed motors, which can be used
to “correct” power factor of three-phase systems.

 Three-phase ac motors are simple in construction and

operation than single-phase ac motors.

 Three-phase ac synchronous motors are constructed like

three-phase alternators. DC voltage produces an
electromagnetic field. Notice the north and south polarities.
The stator windings are connected in either wye or delta
circuit. Three-phase voltage is applied to the stator.

 The rotor has wire windings and is connected by slip rings

and brushes to dc power source.
 Three-phase ac synchronous motors are not self-
starting and some method must be used to start the
motor.
 Synchronous motors are designed so that they will
rotate at one speed regardless of load. This speed is
called synchronous speed.
 INDUCTION MOTORS
simplicity, robust construction and low manufacturing cost. These
characteristics of the induction motor are due to the fact that the rotor is a
self-contained unit and is not connected to the external voltage source. The
induction motor needs no electrical connection to the rotating elements
(rotor), and therefore there are no brushes, commutators, or
slip rings to worry about. Induction motors operates at a fixed revolutions
per minute (RPM) that is determined by their design and
the frequency of the applied AC. The induction motor derives its name from
the fact that A.C. currents are induced in the rotor circuit by the rotating
magnetic field in the stator.
 The basic principle of operation is the same regardless of
the type of rotor used. When AC is applied to the stator
windings, a rotating magnetic field is generated. This
rotating field cuts the bars of the rotor and induces a current
in them.

 This induced current will generate a magnetic field around

the conductors of the rotor, which will try to line up with
the stator field. However, since the stator field is rotating
continuously, the rotor cannot line up with it, but must
always follow along behind it.

 In the case of an induction motor, the motion of the stator

field is changing; so the force exerted on the rotor by the
reaction between the rotor and the stator fields will set
about trying to cancel out the continuous motion of the
stator field. Thus, the rotor will move in the same direction
as the stator field, and will try to get as close to the moving
stator field as its weight and its load will allow.
 Three-phase induction motors are self-starting and are commonly
used for high power applications. Single-phase induction motors
require a starting circuit, which is automatically disconnected
once they are started.

 Single-phase motors operates equally well in either direction of

rotation, and the starting circuit determines the turning direction.

 Many small appliances such as fans and blowers are driven with a
shaded-pole motor, which is a small induction motor due to the
way of obtaining its rotating field. These small motors have very
low starting torque, but their simplicity and low cost make them
suitable for applications where torque is not important.

 The stator construction of the induction motor and the

synchronous motor are almost identical but their rotors are
completely different. The induction motor rotor is a laminated
cylinder with slots in its surface for the windings.
 From Lenz’s Law, any induced current tries to oppose the
changing field, which induces it. In the case of an induction
motor, the motion of the stator field is changing; so the force
exerted on the rotor by the reaction between the rotor and
the stator fields will set about trying to cancel out the
continuous motion of the stator field. Thus, the rotor will
move in the same direction as the stator field, and will try to
get as close to the moving stator field as its weight and its
load will allow.
SLIP
 It is impossible for the rotor of an induction motor to turn as
fast as the rotating magnetic field. No relative motion would
exist between the two if the speeds were the same, and so no
e.m.f will be induced in the rotor.
 Without induced e.m.f, no turning force would be exerted
on the rotor. Thus, the rotor must rotate at a slower speed
than that of the rotating magnetic field if relative motion is
to exist between the two.
 The percentage difference between the speed of
the rotating stator field and the speed of the
rotor is called “slip”. The smaller the slip, the
closer the rotor speed will approach the speed
of the stator field.
 The speed of the rotor depends on the torque
requirements of the load. The bigger the load,
the stronger the turning force needed to rotate
the rotor. First, the rotor must slow down to
increase the relative speed between the field
and the rotor. Thus, the magnetic field cuts
through the rotor at a faster rate and increases
the rotor induced e.m.f. This in turn increases
the turning force.
 For heavier loads, therefore, the induction motor will turn
slower than it will for lighter loads. Actually, only a slight
change in speed is necessary to produce the current changes
required for normal changes in load.
 This is because the rotor windings have such a very low
resistance. The Induction motors are therefore, for all
practical purposes, constant speed motors.

TWO-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

 Induction motors are designed for three-phase or

single-phase operation. But in every case the A.C.
applied to the stator must generate a rotating field
that will pull the rotor with it. We have already
seen how three-phase A.C. applied to a three-
phase symmetrically distributed winding will
generate a rotating magnetic field.
 The stator of a two-phase induction motor is made up
of two windings placed at right angles to each other
around the stator.

Two-Phase Induction Motor

 If the voltages applied to phases A-A1 and B-B1 are 90°

out of phase, the
 currents that will flow in the phases will be displaced
by 90°.
 Since the magnetic fields generated in the coils will be
in phase with their respective currents, the magnetic
fields will also be 90° out of phase with each other.
 These two out-of-phase magnetic fields, whose coil
axes are at right angles to each other, will add together
at every instant during their cycle to produce a
resultant field, which will rotate one revolution for
each cycle of A.C.
 At position 1, the current flow and magnetic field
is a maximum in winding A-A1 and zero in
winding B- B1. The resultant magnetic field will
therefore be in the direction of the winding A-A1
axis. At the 45° point (position 2), the resultant
magnetic field lies midway between windings A-
A1 and B-B1, since the coil currents and magnetic
fields are equal in strength. At 90° (position 3), the
magnetic field in winding A-A1 is zero, and the
magnetic field in winding B-B1 is a maximum.
 The resultant magnetic field lies along the axis of
the B-B1 winding. It has thus rotated through 90°
to get from position 1 to position 3. At 135°
(position 4), the magnetic fields are again equal in
amplitude. However, the magnetic field in
winding A-A1 has reversed its direction.
 The resultant magnetic field, therefore, lies
midway between the windings, and points in
the direction shown. At 180° (position 5), the
magnetic field is zero in winding B-B1 and a
maximum in winding A-A1. The resultant
magnetic field will, therefore, lie along the axis
of winding A-A1.

 From 180° to 360° (positions 5 to 9), the

resultant magnetic field rotates through
another half-cycle and completes a revolution.
Thus, by placing two windings at right angles
to each other, and by exciting these windings
with voltages 90° out of phase, a rotating
magnetic field can be created
SINGLE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
 Single-phase motors are classified into two types,
namely:
1. Induction motors
 Induction motors use the squirrel cage rotor and a
suitable starting device. Series motors resemble DC
machines in that they have commutators and
brushes.
2. Series motors
 Series motors resemble DC machines in that they
have commutators and brushes. A single-phase
induction motor has only one phase and runs on
single phase AC.
 It is extensively used in applications that require
small low output motors. One advantage of using
single-phase motors is that they are less expensive
to manufacture than other types in small sizes.
 The construction of the motor is quite simple. It
has wound stator coils that are connected in either
a wye or delta circuit.
 A squirrel-cage rotor is used and three-phase ac
voltage is applied to the stator. A 120° separation
makes the motor “self starting”. No starting
winding is needed.
 An induction motor has a stator made up of a
number of electromagnets whose strength and
polarity change with excitation current changes.
This gives the effect of a rotating magnetic field in
the stator, and since the field changes at a specific
rate, and induction motor will operate at a fixed
speed
 A split-phase motor has two sets of stator
windings, namely the run winding (main
winding) and the start winding (auxiliary
winding), which are both connected across the
ac power supply.
 A centrifugal switch mounted on the shaft of
the motor is connected in series with the
starting winding. The centrifugal switch is in
closed position when the motor is turned off.
 The purpose of the two sets of windings is to provide a
two-phase ac voltage to start the motor. The single-
phase ac voltage applied to the motor is said to be
“split” into a two-phase current. This phase splitting
creates the magnetic field of the stator.

 The start winding of the split-phase motor is made of a

few turns of small-diameter wire, which gives the
winding a high resistance (small diameter wire) and
low inductance (few turns of wire). The run winding is
wound with many turns of large diameter wire. It has a
lower resistance (large diameter wire) and a higher
inductance (many turns of wire). Inductance in an ac
circuit causes the current flow to lag behind the
applied voltage; with more inductance there is a
greater lag in current flow.
 The single-phase ac voltage waveform of a
split-phase ac induction motor is shown. The
current flow in the start winding lags the
applied ac voltage due to the winding’s
inductance. The current flow in the run
winding lags behind by a greater amount due
to its higher inductance.
 The phase separation of the currents in the start
and run windings creates a two-phase current.
The phase separation of the currents is usually
around 30° or less, which causes the motor to
have a low starting torque. Higher torque
would be produced if phase separation were
closer to 90°.
The centrifugal switch will open the start-winding circuit when a split phase
ac induction motor reaches about 75% of its operating speed.
The start winding is no longer needed and removed to reduce power losses
and prevent the motor from overheating. When the motor is turned off, the
centrifugal switch closes to connect the start winding across the ac voltage
source again. Split–phase motors are used when low torque is required to
drive mechanical loads such as machinery.
 The shaded-pole induction motors have a low-
resistance, short circuited coil or copper band
placed across one tip of each small pole.
 The presence of the ring causes the magnetic field
through the ringed portion of the pole face to lag
appreciably behind that through the other part of
the pole face. The net effect is the production of a
slight component of rotation in the field, which is
sufficient to revolve the rotor.
 As the rotor accelerates, the torque increases until
the rated speed is obtained. Such motors have low
starting torque and are commonly used in small
fan motors where low initial torque is required.
 With the development of high-capacity electrolytic
capacitors, a variation of the split-phase motor, known
as the capacitor-start motor, has been developed.
Nearly all fractional horsepower motors in use today
on refrigerators, oil burners, and other similar
appliances are of this type.
 In this adaptation, the starting winding and running
winding have the same size and resistance value. The
phase shift between currents of the two windings is
obtained by using capacitors connected in series with
the starting winding.
Capacitor-start motors have a starting torque comparable to their
torque at rated speed and can be used in applications with heavy initial
load. Again, a centrifugal switch is required for disconnecting the starting
winding when the rotor speed reaches approximately 75% of the rated
speed.
 The direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction
motor can be changed by simply reversing two of
the leads to the motor. It can also be achieved in a
two-phase motor by reversing the connections to
one phase.
 In a single-phase motor, reversing connections to
the starting winding will reverse the direction of
rotation. Most single-phase motors designed for
general application have provisions for readily
reversing connections to the starting winding. The
direction of rotation of a shaded-pole motor cannot
be reversed as the direction is determined by the
physical location of the copper-shading ring.
 After starting, if one connection to a three-phase motor
is broken, the motor will continue to run but will only
deliver 1/3 of the rated power.
 Similarly, a two-phase motor will run at 1/2 its rated
power if one phase is disconnected. Neither motor will
start under these abnormal conditions.
 The direction of rotation of a split-phase motor
can be reversed by either interchanging the
connection of starting winding or running
winding.
 The speed of the rotating flux, called
synchronous speed, is directly proportional to
the frequency of the supply voltage and
inversely proportional to the number of pairs
of poles; poles only occur in pairs.
 Increasing the supply voltage frequency
increases the frequency of the current in the
stator coils. This will cause the flux to rotate at
a proportionately higher speed.
 The synchronous speed of an induction motor
operating from a fixed frequency system can be
changed by changing the number of poles in
the stator using a frequency converter to
change the frequency or both.
 Pole changing may be achieved using separate
windings for each speed, or by reconnecting the
windings of specially designed machines called
consequent-pole motors.
 When two separate windings are used, the
machine is called a two speed 2-winding motor.
Three separate windings, each arranged for a
different number of poles forms a three-speed 3-
winding motor. Poles arrangements of two, four,
and six poles provide synchronous speeds of
24000, 12000 and 8000 r/min. respectively, from a
400 Hz system.