EASA Mod 3 BK 1 Elect Fund

Book 1 Module 3
CATEGORY B1 B2 B3
ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
Licence By Post
For best examination

results always use latest
issue number.
Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 3.1 to 3.9 ISSUE 10 0110

© Licence By Post
No part of this study book may be re-produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a data base or retrieval system in whole or in part without prior written permission
from Licence By Post.
Books in the LBP series are regularly up-dated/re-written to keep pace with the changing
technology, changing examination requirements and changing legal requirements.
AUTHORITY
It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

purposes only.
When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual or equipment
manufacturer’s handbook.
You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory authority (the
CAA in the UK) and laid down company policy as regards local procedures, recording,
report writing, documentation etc.
For health and safety in the workplace you should follow the regulations/guidelines
as specified by the equipment manufacturer, your company, national safety
authorities and national governments.
LBP
140 Narbeth Drive
Aylesbury
Bucks
HP20 1QA UK
Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871

Fax: (+ 44) 01296 330697
Email: www.info@licencebypost.com
Website: www.licencebypost.com
CONTENTS
Page
Electron theory 1
The atomic structure 1
Static electricity 6
Conduction 8
Generation of electricity 9
The thermocouple 9
The cathode 10
The photo-electric cell 10
The piezoelectric effect 11
Cells or batteries 12
The secondary cell or battery 16
The lead acid cell 17
The nickel cadmium cell 19
The lithium ion battery 21
Fuel cells 25
Electromagnetic induction 27
Electrical terms 27
Resistance 29
Fixed resistors 30
Variable resistors 34
Thermistors 36
Voltage dependent resistors 36
dc circuits 36
Ohm’s law 36
Kirchhoff’s laws 46
The Wheatstone Bridge 50
Power, work and energy 52
Internal resistance 56
Maximum power transfer theorem 57
Capacitance 59
Charge & discharge of a capacitor 65
Types of capacitor 67
Answers to activities & … 70
HOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK
This book is written for the B1 and B2 aircraft engineer with many of the subjects to
level 2 of the EASA Part 66 syllabus.
LBP publish separate study books for the category A line mechanic. The B3 engineer
can use these books for his/her studies but need not remember any of the equations
or associated calculations.
There is a copy of the syllabus in an appendix to book 4.
The category B1 and B2 aircraft engineer should have a good grasp of the
fundamentals of electricity and should be able to apply, and work out, formulas
where necessary.
Some parts of the book are fairly straight forward, other parts will need a second, or
even a third read for the information to ‘sink in’.
Several different types of fuel cells have been included – there should be no need to
commit the details to memory but you should have some knowledge of the range of
fuel cells available and a reasonable knowledge how a fuel cell works. Currently
research is being carried out on fuel cell technology to replace the APU on the aircraft
and also to replace the prime mover engines. An experimental aircraft has already
flown powered only by fuel cells powering electrically driven engines. It is likely that
the APU fuel cell will enter service reasonably soon, but commercial aircraft powered
by fuel cells will take a long time before they enter service.
Details of scientists included in the text, and there are many, need not be committed
to memory – they have been included to give a historical perspective only.
Books in this module – 4.

ELECTRON THEORY
THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Before we look at the more practical side of electrics we should have some knowledge
of the fundamentals of electron flow and this involves the basic structure of matter –
the atomic structure. All substances, whether solid, liquid or gas, are made up of
atoms, which are grouped together in various ways. Figure 1 shows how an atom is
built up.
In the centre is the nucleus, made up of protons (with a positive charge) and
neutrons (with no charge). The electrons (with a negative charge) move around the
nucleus in orbits, rather like the planets around the sun, with each orbit (called a
shell) having a certain number of electrons. The maximum number of orbits around a
nucleus is seven (figure 1 and table 1). These are located at defined distances from
the nucleus, and are designated by the letters K, L, M, N, O, P and Q, starting from
the shell nearest the nucleus.
Fig. 1 BASIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The mass of an electron is estimated to be about 9.1 x 10-31 kilograms (kg) and the
charge it carries is about –1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb (C). These are extremely small
quantities, but it is the electron on which the science of electrics and electronics
depends.
The charge on each proton is positive (+ve) and the charge on each electron is
negative (-ve). There are the same number of protons in an atom as electrons so the
total charge of an atom is neutral (unless we decide to interfere and change it).
The proton, however, is about 1,840 times larger than an electron, so that a quick
calculation gives its mass as 1.67 x 10-27 kg. The revolving electrons are pictured as
moving in elliptical orbits around the nucleus, held in their respective shells by the
attractive force of the nucleus.
The mass of the neutron is similar to that of the proton.
-1-
A substance composed of atoms all of the same type is called an element. Ninety
elements have been found in nature so far and others have been created artificially
bringing the total (to date) to 105. Scientists expect to find more.
For any element each shell contains a fixed number of electrons. There is a maximum
number for each shell, relating to the orbit’s distance from the nucleus eg, level K can
contain up to 2 electrons, level L up to 8, level M up to 18 and so on. The forth line in
Table 1 shows the maximum number that can be obtained in each shell.
The maximum theoretical number in each shell can be found from the formula 2n2
where n is the number of the shell. For example in the N (fourth) shell the number of
electrons equals 2n2 = 2 × 42 = 32.
However, in practice many atoms do not reach this theoretical number, and no atom
can contain more than eight electrons in its outer shell anyway.
Some examples of elements and the number of atoms in each shell are shown in the
following table. (The atomic number is the number of protons in the atom).
ELEMENT SHELL - number of electrons in each shell ATOMIC

(Maximum possible number in brackets) NUMBER
K L M N O P Q
(2) (8) (18) (32) (50) (72) (8)
n = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hydrogen 1 1
Sodium 2 8 1 11
Aluminium 2 8 3 13
Silicon 2 8 4 14
Copper 2 8 18 1 29
Germanium 2 8 18 4 32
Silver 2 8 18 18 1 47
Gold 2 8 18 32 18 1 79
Radon 2 8 18 32 18 8 86
Uranium 2 8 18 32 21 9 2 92
TABLE 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SOME ELEMENTS
The electrons (or electron) making up the outermost shell are called valence
electrons. These are furthest from the attractive force of the nucleus and are least
tightly bound in the atom. It is the valence electrons that play the active part in
electrical conduction.
Figure 2 shows an atom of hydrogen with 1 electron and 1 proton and figure 3 shows
an atom of helium with 2 electrons and 2 protons, both very light gases. Notice there
is only one shell – the K shell.
-2-
Fig. 2 THE HYDROGEN ATOM
Fig. 3 THE HELIUM ATOM
Figures 4 shows an atom of silicon, a very important element in the manufacture of

transistors. K, L and M shells are used holding respectively 2, 8 and 4 electrons.
There are 4 valence electrons and 14 protons.
Fig. 4 THE SILICON ATOM
Figure 5 shows an atom of germanium, also a very important element in the

manufacture of transistors. Shells K, L, M and N are used taking 2, 8, 18 and 4
electrons respectively. It has 4 valence electrons.
Normally atoms are electrically neutral, as far as charge is concerned, because

electrons and protons are present in equal numbers. However, an atom can become
positively or negatively charged if it has electrons taken away or added.
-3-
Fig. 5 THE GERMANIUM ATOM
When an atom gives up an electron it becomes positively charged (it has more
protons than electrons), and this is called a positive ion. When it takes in an extra
electron it becomes negatively charged and it is called a negative ion.
An ion is therefore an atom which has lost or gained an electron.
Metals represent a category of elements endowed with particular properties. One of

these is that some of the electrons in the outer shells are so loosely tied to the
nucleus that they are effectively floating freely and move easily from one atom to
another. Normally their movement is random, but by applying an exterior electrical
force (such as that provided by a battery or generator) they can all be made to move
in the same direction. When they all move in the same direction, we have an electron
flow and we have Current.
Figure 6 shows a copper conductor with (a) no current flowing and the electrons are
moving randomly, and (b) current flowing with the electrons moving in one direction.
Note that when a positive charge is placed across the conductor the negative
electrons flow towards the positive end and conventional current flow is shown
flowing in the opposite direction towards the negative end.
Fig. 6 CURRENT FLOW
-4-
When the electrons move in one direction only then the current is known as Direct
Current (dc), as when a battery is used to provide the electrical force (dc voltage).
When the electrons move backwards and forwards (as when an alternator/ac
generator is used [ac voltage]) then the current is called Alternating Current (ac).
Ac current usually has a frequency on aircraft of 400Hz (400 cycles per second),
though some frequency-wild or variable frequency systems do exist (Airbus A380 for
example).
This orderly movement of electrons is called current (more correctly, electron flow)
and metals which easily permit current to flow are called conductors eg, copper,
aluminium, silver, platinum, bronze, gold, most Fe metals etc.
In other materials the electrons are held more firmly in their outer shells and current
flow is difficult to obtain. In these materials it is almost impossible to induce an
orderly movement of electrons and they are classified as non-conductors, or
insulators eg, glass, rubber, plastic, air, wood, mica etc.
There is a family of elements called semiconductors which have properties that

means that sometimes they behave like conductors and sometimes they behave like
insulators. Typical semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium.
These materials have four valence electrons and each atom shares its electrons with
adjacent atoms to form a strongly bonded structure called a crystal lattice. The
freedom of movement of electrons is poor, and in their pure state these
semiconductors act as insulators. Figure 7 shows the crystal lattice of silicon.
However, electron movement can be achieved by heating. As the temperature rises

the electrons become more agitated and will leave their orbits. In this condition, if a
voltage is placed across the material, electron movement occurs.
Fig. 7 VALENCE ELECTRONS IN A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICE
-5-
This is known as ‘intrinsic’ conduction which can cause problems. With current
switched-on heat is created, this will cause more conduction to occur which will
create more heat, this increases the conduction even further and so on. This cycle
will continue until breakdown occurs and is known as ‘thermal runaway’. This a form
of positive feedback in the system which can be dangerous.
Another way to improve the conductivity of a semiconductor is by ‘doping’ the

material with a tiny amount of another element. This doping material is introduced
into the crystal lattice structure which improves its conductivity. More detail of this
in module 4 study books in this series but figure 8 shows silicon doped with arsenic.
The arsenic doping produces a free electron and it is this that allows the material to
behave as a conductor. The arsenic atom has 5 valance electrons and the silicon
atom has 4 so a free electron is created. Almost any atom can be a donor atom in this
way provided it has one more electron in its valance shell than the material to be
doped.
Fig. 8 FREE ELECTRON IN SILICON (Si) DOPED

WITH ARSENIC (As)
An acceptor atom is opposite to a donor atom in that it has one less electron in its
valance shell than the material that it is doped into. This produces a ‘hole’ which will
attract an electron from another atom: eg a 3 valent atom doped into a material made
up of 4 valent atoms will produce a ‘hole’.
Free electrons and free holes make the semi-conductor into a conductor. Without
them it would be an insulator.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity is where an object picks up a static charge without, necessarily,

having a dynamic electron flow such as an ac or dc current.
For example. If, on a warm day, a dry glass rod is rubbed with silk, some electrons
from the glass attach themselves to the silk and the glass becomes positively charged
(loss of electrons) and the silk becomes negatively charged (excess of electrons). Both
are said to have static electricity.
-6-
If a second charged glass rod is brought close to the first charged rod repulsion
occurs. This is because they are both of the same polarity. If ebonite is rubbed with a
woollen cloth, the ebonite becomes negatively charged and the cloth becomes
positively charged, and if the ebonite is now placed next to the charged glass rod,
attraction occurs. This is because they are of opposite polarity (figure 9). Therefore,
the basic laws of electrostatics are:
LIKE CHARGES REPEL UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT
This law applies to both insulators and conductors. The size of the charge is
measured in COULOMBS (C) which is defined as the amount of electrical charge
which passes a point in a conductor when a current of 1 amp flows for 1 second.
The force which two charged bodies exert on each other can be calculated using
Coulomb’s law*, which states that the force between two electric charges is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.
* Charles Augustin de Coulomb French physicist 1736 – 1806.
An electric charge sets up an electric field in the space surrounding it and an electric
force is exerted on any charged body placed in the field.
An electric line of force is a line drawn in an electric field such that its direction at
any point gives the direction of the electric field at that point.
These lines of force (figure 9), sometimes known as magnetic lines of force or flux
lines have the following properties:
(a) They begin and end in equal and opposite quantities of charge.
(b) They are in a state of tension, which causes them to try to shorten,
similar to a piece of elastic or a rubber band.
(c) They repel each other sideways.
(d) They are invisible.
(e) They can be ‘seen’ using such things as iron fillings or magnetic ink.
(f) They will pass through non magnetic substances but are diverted
(concentrated) by magnetic substances.
Fig. 9 ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE
Thus the attraction of two unlike charges (figure 9a) is explained by the tension of
lines of force joining them and the repulsion (figure 9b) by the sideways repulsion
between the lines of force.
-7-
CONDUCTION
Figure 10 shows a conductor containing free electrons moving at random among

positive ions. There is no applied voltage and therefore no current. If a battery is
connected across the conductor as shown in figure 11, the free electrons near to the
positive plate will be attracted to it (unlike charges attract) and the free electrons near
the negative plate will be repelled from it. This will cause a steady drift of electrons to
take place through the material from the negative battery terminal to the positive
battery terminal. For each electron entering the positive terminal one will be ejected
from the negative terminal so the number of electrons in the material remains
constant.
Fig. 10 FREE ELECTRONS IN A CONDUCTOR

(RANDOM MOVEMENT)
Fig. 11 MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS WHEN CONNECTED

TO A BATTERY (MOVEMENT IN ONE DIRECTION)
Since the atoms that have become positive ions are unable to move in a solid they do
not drift but remain stationary. The drift of electrons is the electric current. The
electrons which enter the battery through the positive plate are passed through it
and ejected from the negative plate into the conductor. It is most important to realise
that this flow of electrons (current) cannot take place unless there is a continuous
conducting path ie, a closed circuit as shown in figure 11.
With reference to figure 11. The flow of electrons is from the negative side of the
battery to the positive side. This is known as electron flow. However, for many years it
was thought that the current flow was from the positive to the negative side and
many rules were based on this assumption. This is called conventional current flow
and is still used today as the basis for all calculations and theory of circuits.
In other words we assume current flow is from positive to negative external to the
source of supply. This approach works, and unless stated otherwise everything in
this module will use conventional current flow.
We have seen how electrons can move in a solid conductor but conduction can also
take place in liquids. Placing a copper electrode and a zinc electrode in dilute
sulphuric acid, for example, will cause electrons to move from the zinc to the copper.
More detail on this later.
-8-
Conduction can also occur through an evacuated tube containing two electrodes
called an anode (+) and a cathode (-). The cathode is a special material that, when
heated, emits electrons from its surface. If the anode is now made positive it will
attract these electrons. This is the basis of the conduction through a Cathode Ray
Tube (CRT).
Another form of conduction takes place when the tube is filled with gas such as
argon, helium, neon or mercury vapour, at a low pressure. The positive at the anode
attracts electrons from the heated cathode with sufficient velocity as to detach outer
electrons from the gas atoms when they collide. These detached electrons leave the
gas atoms positively charged (positive ions).
This forming of positive ions is called ionisation. The free electrons join the cathode
electrons and move towards the anode. More collisions occur causing more positive
ions. This ionisation causes a visible glow in the tube (producing light), the colour
depending on what type of gas is used. Neon for example, gives an orange-red glow.
GENERATION OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity can be produced by various methods, other than just generators etc. Many
of these ‘other’ methods are described below with generators covered in more detail in
book 4 of this series.
THE THERMOCOUPLE
We have already seen how electricity can be produced by charging a material by

friction eg, a glass rod rubbed with silk, well, electricity can also be produced by
joining 2 dissimilar metals together and applying heat to the joint. Provided the joint
or junction is connected as part of a closed electrical circuit then current will flow.
This is called a thermocouple.
The heated joint is called the HOT JUNCTION and the joint at the other end is called
the COLD JUNCTION (figure 12). When heated the hot junction will produce a small
voltage known as an electro-motive force (emf). This is known as the Seebeck effect
(Thomas Johann Seebeck Estonian/German physicist 1770 - 1831).
Fig. 12 THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE
-9-
This emf (voltage) drives a current round the circuit. The emf generated is
proportional to the difference in temperature between the hot and cold junctions.
Typical metals used would be copper and constantan (40% nickel, 60% copper) used
for engine cylinder head temperature measurement with a maximum continuous
temperature of 400°C. Iron or constantan is used for maximum continuous
temperatures of 850°C. A typical material combination for jet engine exhaust gas
temperature measurement is alumel (90% nickel, 2% aluminium, silicon and
manganese) and chromel (nickel 90%, chrome 10%) used with maximum continuous
temperatures of 1100°C.
THE CATHODE
Another method, previously mentioned, is the heating of a material to emit electrons.

Figure 13 shows indirectly heated cathodes. The one on the left is a flat cathode
whilst the one on the right is a cylindrical nickel tube (anode not shown). The heater
element is a tungsten wire electrically insulated from the cathode and anode.
Fig. 13 CATHODES
All electrical conductors have free electrons within them which normally cannot
escape from the material. However, if the material is heated, atoms will oscillate
quickly, collisions will occur and electrons will gain enough energy and speed to leave
the surface of the material. This is known as thermionic emission.
The surface barrier of clean metals is strong and few electrons leave the surface.
However, if the metal is made very hot and the metal (cathode) is coated at the tips
with an oxide (barium and strontium mixture), the surface barrier becomes weak and
many electrons are emitted at red heat. These are caused to discharge to an anode.
Heated cathodes are used in CRTs and fluorescent lighting.
THE PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELL
Light is another source of energy which can create electron flow - typically in photo-
electric cells (1 photon of light will produce 1 electron of electrical flow). One such
device is known as a photo-conductive cell or light dependent resistor (figure 14). It
consists of metal electrodes on a surface made of cadmium sulphide.
- 10 -
The effect of the energy of the light on the cell causes electrons to become free within
the material increasing its conductivity and reducing its resistance – so current will
flow.
Fig. 14 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESIST0R
When light falls on a photo-voltaic cell (figure 15) a small voltage is produced, it
breaks down the depletion layer of the p-n junction and electron flow is created.
Electrons flow from the p layer to the n layer to leave ‘holes’ in the p layer. It is
considered that these holes migrate from the n layer.
A similar action occurs with a photodiode and phototransistor. More details of these
in the Module 4 books in this series.
Fig. 15 PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELL
THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT
Another method of generating electricity is by applying force or pressure to a crystal.

This method uses piezoelectric crystals such as quartz or barium titanate. When
subjected to mechanical stress (a force on the crystal) it produces a strain (a change
in shape of the crystal – which is very small) and an electrical charge is produced.
- 11 -
In other words, when the crystal is compressed (and when the compression is
released) it produces a charge proportional to the force applied or released. The
crystal produces an output when the strain is changed (increased or reduced).
Piezoelectric transducers are used on vibration monitoring systems on engines and

helicopters for example.
Notes. Stress = Force per unit area = N/m2 = Pascal (Pa). Strain = change in length
over original length and has no units. All materials will show strain when a force is
applied.
CELLS OR BATTERIES
A ‘cell’ is a device for ‘storing’, usually in a chemical form, an electrical charge.

Commonly called batteries and are divided into two main groups – Primary Cells and
Secondary Cells.
A primary cell is one in which, when the voltage of the cell falls it cannot be
recharged as the chemicals are used up and the process cannot be reversed.
A secondary cell can be recharged (the chemical process reversed) once it has been
discharged with the process being capable of being repeated time and time again.
Included in this category are aircraft batteries, car batteries etc.
Fig. 16 SIMPLIFIED ELECTRIC CELL
A simplified primary cell is shown in figure 16 using copper and zinc electrodes
placed in a dilute solution of sulphuric acid (electrolyte). Electrons flow from the
copper to the zinc through the electrolyte and then through the external circuit from
the zinc plate to the copper plate via the milli-ammeter.
Note. Electron flow externally is –ve (zinc) to +ve (copper) and internally it is copper to
zinc, conventional current flow is opposite.
During the chemical action hydrogen bubbles collect on the copper which decreases
the emf of the cell. This is called polarisation. Also, the zinc plate is eroded away,
caused by impurities in the zinc. This is known as Local Action or Oxidation.
- 12 -
The Voltaic Cell (Count Anastasio Volta Italian physicist 1745 – 1827)
The basis of most modern batteries the Voltaic cell may take several forms but the
principal of operation is the same for all of them. Forms include:
* Two electrodes in a single container filled with an electrolyte.

* Two electrodes each in its own electrolyte filled container with a salt
bridge connecting the two electrolytes.
* Two electrodes in a container with two electrolytes separated by a
porous membrane.
Figure 17 shows a Voltaic cell using a single electrolyte and two electrodes or plates
connected by an external circuit with an open circuit voltage of about 0.8V. When the
switch is closed as shown, electrons flow through the external circuit from the zinc
electrode to the copper electrode via the resistor R (zinc will readily give up electrons
to copper). This will result in electrons being removed from the zinc electrode and
being deposited onto the copper electrode.
Fig. 17 THE VOLTAIC CELL
As a zinc atom provides the electrons (2) it becomes a positive ion and goes into
aqueous solution reducing the mass of the zinc electrode.
The 2 electrons received by the copper electrode allow for the conversion of a copper
ion from solution into an uncharged copper atom. This atom is deposited on the
electrode increasing its mass.
This leaves the zinc plate with a surplus of positive charge and the copper plate with
a surplus of negative charge so negative sulphate ions (SO42-) in the electrolyte move
to the zinc electrode to balance the external electron flow.
The sulphate ions, after giving up their surplus electrons to the zinc electrode,
combine with the zinc to form zinc sulphate that goes into the solution.
As Oxidation (the loss of electrons) occurs at the zinc electrode it is called the anode
and as Reduction occurs at the copper electrode it is called the Cathode.
- 13 -
The hydrogen ions, after absorbing electrons from the copper plate, form a gaseous
layer on the surface of the copper, thus:
a) It gives rise to polarisation, ie it sets up a back emf.
b) It acts as a shield reducing the active area of the electrode and this
increases the internal resistance of the cell.
This causes the terminal voltage of the cell to fall and thus this type of cell is
therefore only suitable for intermittent use.
Polarisation can be reduced by introducing a depolarising agent to combine with the

hydrogen, eg manganese dioxide as in the Leclanchē cell.
The Daniell Cell
Invented in 1836 by John Daniell (Kings College, London). Used in some laboratories
as a reference voltage as it produces a very accurate voltage. It consists of a copper
container (the cathode positive pole) filled with saturated copper sulphate solution.
Within the container stands a porous earthenware pot containing a zinc rod (the
anode negative pole) within a zinc sulphide solution (sometimes a dilute sulphuric
acid) (figure 18).
Fig. 18 THE DANIELL CELL
When the poles are connected together with an external circuit the electrons flow
from the zinc –ve pole to the copper +ve pole.
The porous pot prevents the copper ions (from the copper sulphate solution) reaching
the zinc sulphate solution.
Polarisation does not occur because the copper, and not the hydrogen, is deposited
on the copper container pole. This copper deposition causes the copper sulphate
solution to become more dilute. To allow the cell to be used for a longer period of time
copper sulphate crystals are placed inside the copper container above a perforated
divider – this keeps the solution in a saturated condition.
- 14 -
So copper accumulates at the cathode and the zinc electrode ‘dissolves’.
The advantage of the Daniell cell is that it keeps a very steady emf of 1.1V so is used
as a standard voltage for testing instruments etc.
Its disadvantage is that if it is not used for a short period of time then the copper
sulphate solution will diffuse through the porous pot and deposits copper on the zinc
rod, which spoils its action. So each time the cell is used it has to be made up afresh.
The more common type of cell is the ‘dry cell’ known as the Leclanchē cell (Georges
Leclanchē French engineer 1839 –1882).
The Leclanchē Cell
This cell has evolved into the modern alkaline battery. The Leclanchē cell consists of
a carbon rod surrounded by manganese dioxide and a powered carbon compound.
Around this, separated by a linen liner, is an electrolytic paste of aqueous
ammonium chloride.
The positive plate is a brass capped carbon rod and the negative plate is the battery
case itself (made of zinc).
The cell voltage is typically 1.5V and, again, electron flow is carbon rod
(+ cathode) to zinc case (- anode) internally and zinc case to carbon rod through an
external circuit (or load). Conventional current flow, of course, is opposite.
Fig. 19 THE LECLANCHĒ CELL (DRY CELL)
When the zinc atoms oxidise on the surface of the zinc case they give off their
electrons to become positively charged ions. The electrons on the zinc case cause it to
become negatively charged with respect to the carbon rod so when an external circuit
is connected, electrons flow from the zinc case to the carbon rod.
When the electrons enter the carbon they combine with the manganese dioxide and
water which react to form manganese oxide and negatively charged hydroxide ions.
These ions react with the ammonium chloride electrolyte to form ammonia and water.
- 15 -
The Mercury Cell
Also called a Mercury Oxide battery, it is a non-rechargeable primary cell. Due to its
mercury content there are legal restrictions in place in some countries as to its use.
In figure 20 the outer case is the positive terminal and the insert cap at the top is the
negative terminal. Its open circuit voltage is held constant at about 1.35V and it will
hold this for about 95% of its life.
With reference to figure 20. The cell is made up of a layer of zinc (anode), a layer of
potassium hydroxide (electrolyte) and a mercury oxide layer acting as the cathode.
The mercury oxide is mixed with graphite to allow it to conduct and is separated from
the potassium hydroxide by a thin insulating layer.
When an external circuit is completed between the terminals a chemical reaction

takes place and electrons move from the anode to the cathode and the zinc oxidises
to zinc oxide and the mercury oxide gets reduced to elementary mercury.
Replacements for this battery (in countries where they are banned) include Zinc Air
batteries, Alkaline batteries and Silver Oxide batteries.
Fig. 20 THE MERCURY CELL
Table 2 shows some types of primary cells that are available and their main
properties. There are many others.
THE SECONDARY CELL OR BATTERY
The secondary cell is one in which the chemical action is reversible. It can be
recharged by passing a current through the cell after it has discharged and it can be
used again.
There are several types of secondary cells, for example, lead acid, nickel cadmium
and ion lithium (sometimes called lithium ion).
- 16 -
TYPE VOLTAGE PROPERTIES USES
Carbon zinc 1.5 Popular. Voltage falls with increased Hand torches
(Leclanchē) current. Good for low Portable radios
current/occasional use. Cheap. etc.
Alkaline- 1.5 Voltage falls less steeply in use. Radios

Manganese Long shelf life. Better for lighter Calculators
currents. Lasts up to 4 times Flash
longer than same size carbon zinc photographic
cell. Medium price. units.
Mercury 1.3 Almost constant voltage until Watches

discharged. Good for low current Calculators
use. Good capacity/size ratio. Long Cameras
shelf life. Constructed as small Hearing aids.
‘buttons’. Expensive.
Silver oxide 1.5 Similar to the mercury cell.
TABLE 2 - TYPES OF PRIMARY CELLS
The Lead Acid Cell
The lead acid cell has a positive plate of a lead antimony grid into which lead
peroxide paste (PbO2) is forced under pressure. The negative plate is a lead antimony
grid into which pure spongy lead (Pb) is forced. The electrolyte is a solution of
sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and distilled water mixed to an SG (Specific Gravity) of
approximately 1.25 to 1.27 (figures 21 and 22A). Note that the term Relative Density
(RG) is used in place of SG in many publications.
Fig. 21 EXPLODED VIEW OF TYPICAL LEAD/ACID SECONDARY CELL
- 17 -
Figure 21 shows an exploded view of the cell with a number of positive and negative
plates. These are interleaved together and each positive and negative plate is
prevented from touching each other by separators, which are typically made of micro-
porous plastic.
You will note that it is arranged that there is one more negative plate than positive so
that the negative plates are on the outside. This is because the positive plates tend to
distort when there is chemical action on one side only so the battery is designed so
that there is chemical action on both sides.
The plates are placed in an acid proof container and the container is filled with an
electrolyte. At the top of the container is a vent plug to allow gases to escape during
the chemical action.
The nominal voltage of each cell is 2 volts. Fully charged the voltage will be 2.2V, fully
discharged 1.8V.
Assuming the cell is fully charged and connected to an external circuit (a load). The
electrons will flow from the spongy lead plate (-ve) to the lead peroxide plate (+ve)
through the circuit (figure 22B).
A chemical reaction in the electrolyte causes lead sulphate to be deposited on both

plates and they start to become sulphated. Water is also released, which dilutes the
electrolyte ie, the SG falls. When the voltage falls to 1.8V the cell is said to be
discharged.
Fig. 22 LEAD ACID CELL CHEMICAL ACTION
- 18 -
By connecting a dc power source across the cell (figure 22C) (+ve to +ve and –ve to –
ve) it can be recharged. Electrons are forced into the cell at the negative terminal
which, by chemical action, changes the plates back to spongy lead and lead peroxide.
The water is changed back to sulphuric acid, the SG of the electrolyte rises, as does
the cell voltage. When it reaches 2.2V the cell is now considered recharged.
The Nickel Cadmium Cell
One type of alkaline cell is the Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cad) cell [a similar cell is the
Nickel Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) cell]. In the Ni-Cad cell the plates are a woven wire
screen into which the active materials are sintered (a form of powder technology) heat
treated into the plates. The materials are nickel hydroxide [Ni(OH)2] for the positive
plates and cadmium hydroxide [Cd(OH)2] for the negative plates. Figures 23 and 24
show the construction of the cell. Note the separators are nylon - cellophane - nylon
wrapped between the plates.
Fig. 23 CONSTRUCTION OF THE NI-CAD CELL
- 19 -
Fig. 24 A NI-CAD CELL
The plates are house in a polymer container fitted with a vent plug (to allow gases to
escape) and positive and negative connectors. The electrolyte is a solution of distilled
water and potassium hydroxide [KOH) with an SG of 1.24 to 1.3.
Fig. 25 NI-CAD CELL CHEMICAL ACTION
- 20 -
During discharge (figure 25B) oxygen is driven from the positive plate and recovered
by the negative plate. No gassing takes place, and the electrolyte is absorbed into the
plates and the level drops.
During charging the negative plates lose oxygen to the positive plates and become
metallic cadmium. The nickel hydroxide on the positive plates accept this oxygen and
become more highly oxidised Ni(OH)2 → Ni(OH)3 and the positive plates give up
hydrogen to the negative plates.
As the cell becomes fully charged and when being overcharged it emits gas caused by
the water in the electrolyte being decomposed by electrolysis.
When the cell is fully charged (typically 1.5V) there will be a small amount of gassing
and electrolyte is driven from the plates and it will be at its highest level within the
cell. The electrolyte plays no part in the chemical reaction; it is only used to provide a
path for current flow so the SG does not change between charge and discharge.
The nominal voltage of a ni-cad cell is 1.2V. This voltage is maintained throughout
the discharge period until 80% capacity has been removed from the cell. This
provides a constant voltage over a long period, unlike the lead-acid battery where the
voltage level drops steadily over the period of discharge.
This is why it is not possible to check the state of charge of a Ni-Cad battery by
checking the voltage or the SG of the electrolyte, unlike a lead acid battery where
these values give a good indication of state of charge.
Each cell is made up as shown in figure 24 and the complete battery is made up of a
number of individual cells connected together in series to make up the required total
voltage output.
The Lithium Ion Battery
This should not be confused with the Lithium battery which is a primary cell where-
as the Lithium-Ion cell is a secondary cell.
The Lithium Ion (Li-ion or LIB) cell relies on the transfer of lithium ions from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge with the reverse
happening during charging. Commonly the negative electrode is made of graphite
(carbon) with the positive electrode made of lithium cobalt oxide and the electrolyte
made up of lithium salts in an organic solvent.
The advantages include a high open circuit voltage (volts per cell = 3.6V); a good
power to weight ratio (high power density), holds charge well and does not suffer from
memory effect.
The disadvantages include: can catch fire and explode if overheated; can suffer from
Thermal Runaway (a serious problem with some aircraft); will damage if discharged
below a certain value (has circuitry fitted to prevent this); expensive and electrolyte
inflammable.
Used extensively in portable electronic equipment; lap-top computers, cameras,

mobile phones etc.
- 21 -
Fig. 26 LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
Battery Symbol
The symbol for a conventional cell/battery is with the longer vertical line
being the positive connection and the shorter one the negative connection. The
symbol would tend to indicate a single cell, but this is not necessarily true, and some
drawings do repeat the vertical lines to indicate a multi cell battery but this is
unnecessary.
In some (usually older) manuals the symbol may be different so always check.
Battery Connections
The majority of modern (metal) aircraft are wired on a single pole system, ie one
terminal (usually the negative) of every consumer component in the system is
connected to earth (the metal of the airframe) with the positive connection connected
to the supply. The battery is connected with its positive terminal connected to the
positive supply line to the consumables (those requiring dc) and its negative terminal
connected to earth. With this system the airframe becomes part of the electrical
system which means a significant weight saving as there is no requirement for return
cables.
However, it is easy to short circuit the battery during connection/disconnection (if

the battery has separate positive and negative leads – similar to most motor vehicles).
These type of batteries are fitted to older aircraft and when fitting the battery the
positive lead is connected first with the negative lead last. When disconnecting,
remove the negative lead first and the positive lead last.
For all modern aircraft both leads are connected via a single screw-in plug which is
handed so the connections cannot be reversed. Remember, all systems and the
supply must be OFF during connection/disconnection and after connection the
system/s must be tested.
For composite aircraft the airframe cannot be used (composites are normally non-
conductive) as the return path so a single pole system cannot be used.
- 22 -
In this case the wiring system is a double pole system with a positive and a negative
wire going to each component (similar to domestic wiring – though that does also
have an earth wire). In some cases the return line may go to return buses and from
there back to the negative side of the battery (see electrical systems modules 11 [fixed
wing airframes], 12 [helicopters] or 13 [B2 avionic module]).
Current Flow (figure 27)
Conventional current flows out of the battery from the positive terminal, through the
aircraft wiring circuits to the components and back to the negative terminal of the
battery via the (metal) airframe. If it is a composite airframe the return path will be
provided by a return harness or provided for in the normal aircraft wiring.
Within the battery conventional flow is from the negative end to the positive end.
Fig. 27 BATTERY/ELECTRIC CIRCUIT CURRENT FLOW
Electron flow of course, is opposite, with the electrons flowing through the external
circuit from the battery’s negative terminal to the battery’s positive terminal. Within
the battery the electrons flow from positive to negative.
Battery Capacity
The capacity of a cell/battery is the maximum current it can deliver for a set period of
time. If a cell is rated 10AH (Ampere Hours) at the one-hour rate and if it is 100%
efficient then it should be capable of delivering 10 amps for 1 hour.
ie: AMPS x TIME (HRS) = AMPERE HOURS
10 x 1 = 10 AH
For an aircraft battery to be considered serviceable it must be at 80% efficiency.
- 23 -
Series and Parallel Connections
If two cells are connected in series then the total voltage output is the sum of the
individual cells but the total capacity remains the same. So if they both have the
same voltage then the total voltage is doubled.
With reference to figure 28. Each cell is a 2V 10AH cell. Connecting two in series
gives a total output of 4V 10AH. So to make up a Ni-Cad battery with a nominal
voltage of 28V using cells of nominal voltage 1.2V a manufacturer would use a total
of 24 cells connected in series (24 x 1.2V = 28.8V).
Fig. 28 TWO 2V 10AH CELLS CONNECTED IN SERIES
If the same two cells are connected in parallel (figure 29) then the overall voltage
output remains the same (2V) but the capacity doubles and would be 2V 20AH.
In other words: Cells (or indeed batteries) connected in series – their individual
voltages are summed but current remains the same. Cells (or batteries) connected in
parallel – their individual currents are summed but the voltage output remains the
same.
Fig. 29 TWO 2V 10AH CELLS CONNECTED IN PARALLEL
If an aircraft has more than one battery connected to the dc bus then they are
normally connected in parallel. So the nominal bus voltage still remains at 28V but
the system capacity increases. On some systems there may be a switching system to
connect the batteries in series automatically (to double the voltage) - for engine
starting purposes for example.
- 24 -
FUEL CELLS
In principle, a fuel cell operates similar to a battery. But unlike a battery, a fuel cell
does not run-down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of
electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.
Fuel cells are in the process of development for use on aircraft and designs are well
advanced for APU (auxiliary power units) fuel cells, so these are likely to be found in
service in the near future.
There are many different types of fuel cell and the following description is based on
the Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cell.
The Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
Operates at about 80°C (175°F) the cell consists of two electrodes sandwiched around
an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen (fuel) passes over the
other and this generates electricity, water and heat (figure 30).
The PEM uses a thin plastic sheet that allows hydrogen ions to pass through. The
membrane is coated on both sides with highly dispersed metal alloy particles (mostly
platinum) that are active catalysts. The electrolyte used is a solid organic polymer.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anode and oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell through the
cathode. Encouraged by the catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an
electron, which take different paths to the cathode. The proton (hydrogen ions) pass
through the electrolyte.
Fig. 30 THE PEM FUEL CELL
The electron movement creates a current that can be utilised before they are returned
to the cathode to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water.
The fuel cell system, which includes a ‘fuel reformer’, can utilise the hydrogen from
any hydrocarbon fuel – from natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline.
- 25 -
Since the fuel cell relies on chemistry and not combustion, emissions from this type
of system are smaller than emissions from conventional fuel combustion processes.
The cell can produce between 50 to 250kW of power.
Other Types of Fuel Cell
There are many types of fuel cells and below are described just a few (there is no
need to remember the details but you should have a reasonably good idea of the
range available).
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC). Already in use in some buildings such as airport
terminals. About 40% efficient – this compares to about 35% for domestic electrical
power generation.
Operating temperatures are 150-200°C. The electrolyte is liquid phosphoric acid

soaked in a matrix.
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC). These use a liquid solution of lithium, sodium
and/or potassium carbonates, soaked in a matrix for an electrolyte. Efficiencies are
about 60% to 85% with cogeneration. Operating temperatures are high (650°C).
Can operate on hydrogen, carbon monoxide, natural gas, propane, Diesel and coal
products. Output 10kW to 2MW.
Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC). Used in high-power applications including industrial
and large-scale electricity generating stations and are being developed by Boeing as a
fuel cell for Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) applications.
Usually uses a hard ceramic material of solid zirconium oxide, allowing

temperatures to reach 1000°C. Power outputs up to about 200kW.
Alkaline Fuel Cell. These cells can achieve efficiencies up to 70%. They were used on
the Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking water. Operating
temperature is about 200°C. They use an aqueous solution of alkaline potassium
hydroxide soaked in a matrix as the electrolyte. Typical output from 300W to 5kW.
Regenerative Fuel Cells. These are a closed-loop form of power generation. Water is
separated into hydrogen and oxygen by a solar-powered electrolyser. Then hydrogen
and oxygen are fed into the fuel cell which generates electricity, heat and water. The
water is then re-circulated back to the solar-powered electrolyser and the process
begins again.
- 26 -
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION
Another method of generation electricity is by magnetism and motion – as used in

most generators. If magnetic flux lines are cut by a conductor as part of an electric
circuit then an emf is produced. The flux lines can be cut by:
* Moving a magnet passed a stationary conductor (coil) (figure 31).

* Moving the conductor past a stationary magnet.
* Having one stationary coil fed with alternating current (ac) next to
another stationary coil. (The build-up and collapse of the flux lines from
the first coil will cut the second coil and produce an ac emf in the
second coil). Note, there has been no actual movement of the ‘hardware’
but there has been movement of the flux lines across the second coil so
an alternating emf is produced.
When a magnet is moved into an air cored coil as shown in figure 31, the voltmeter
will deflect to one side while the magnet is being lowered indicating an induced emf.
When the magnet is removed from the coil a reverse emf will be induced and the
voltmeter needle will deflect the other way.
There would be no induced emf if the magnet was held stationary.
This is the basis of the operation of the generator. Typically with the generator the
magnet (or magnets) are rotated within the coil (or coils) and an ac supply is
generated. This can be modified within the generator to a dc output.
Fig. 31 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION
ELECTRICAL TERMS
Before we look at any more circuits it is necessary to understand the terms used.
Some of these we have already met, some are new, all should be committed to
memory.
- 27 -
Electromotive-force (emf). This is the driving influence that causes current to flow. Its
unit is the VOLT (Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta Italian
physicist 1745 – 1827). A battery, cell or generator produce an emf.
Potential Difference (pd). This is the voltage difference between two parts of a circuit
or between two circuits.
Fig. 32 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The circuit in figure 32 has a total emf of 4 volts (4 volt battery) and two lamps wired
in series (a 3V lamp and a 1V lamp). If we wish to know the potential difference
between A and B a voltmeter is used and will read 3V, ie the portion of the total emf
used across the 3 volt lamp, this is the pd between these two points. The pd between
B and C is 1V. The pd is therefore a voltage measurement (difference) between two
points in a circuit. The total pd is 4V .
Voltage (V). The unit of emf and potential difference (pd). It can be compared to
pressure in hydraulic or fluid terms and is the force required to push electrons
around a circuit. It is voltage that will produce current.
Current (I). The unit of electron flow measured in Amperes* (A). It is defined as a flow
of 1 Coulomb per second. A Coulomb is about 6.3 x 1018 electrons. (there is no need
to remember this). Current can be compared to flow in fluids.
If there is pressure in a hydraulic system but the control valve is off then there is no
flow and nothing works. The same with electrical circuits. If there is voltage and the
switch is off there is no current. With the switch closed (on) the current will flow and
work can be done.
* Andre Marie Ampere French physicist 1775 – 1836.
Resistance (R). Electrons flow more easily through some materials than others. This
opposition to current flow is called Resistance and is measured in ohms* (Ω). There is
not such a direct comparison with hydraulics here though there is resistance to fluid
flow due to viscosity etc.
* Georg Simon Ohm German physicist 1787 – 1854.
Conductance (G). This is the reciprocal of resistance:
1
G=
R
- 28 -
The unit is the Siemen* (S). A resistance (R) of 10Ω has a conductance of 0.1S.
* Sir William Siemens British engineer 1823 – 1883.
Charge Q (Quantity). The quantity of electricity passing a given point in a circuit

when a current of 1 ampere is maintained for 1 second.
Q = I(amps) x t(secs) COULOMBS (C).
For example. If a current of 12A passes a point in a circuit for 2 minutes the quantity
of electricity that has passed = 12 x 2 x 60 = 1440C.
Conventional Current Flow. From positive to negative.
Electron Flow. From negative to positive.
RESISTANCE
The factors which affect resistance are:
* Material.
* Length of conductor.
* Cross sectional area of conductor.
* Temperature.
Material
As we have already seen some materials are good conductors eg, silver, copper,
aluminium (in general most metals). Other materials such as glass, mica, rubber and
most plastics are not. Good conductors have a low resistance and poor conductors
(insulators) have a high resistance. All materials have some resistance, silver has a
lower resistance than copper for example.
All materials therefore have a value of resistance per metre length (a constant). This
value is found by measuring the resistance between the opposite faces of a unit cube
of the material and this is usually expressed in ohm-metres (Ωm) and is called the
resistivity or specific resistance of the material.
The symbol ρ(rho) is used for resistivity. Some typical figures are shown below.
MATERIAL Ωm
Aluminium 2.7 x 10-8
Brass 7.2 x 10-8
Copper 1.5 x 10-8
Zinc 5.57 x 10-8
The above values are taken at 0°C and will change with a change in temperature.
- 29 -
Length (l)
If a conductor has a resistance of 2Ω and is 5cm long, the same conductor 10 cm

long would have a resistance of 4Ω. Resistance is therefore directly proportional to
length.
Cross Sectional Area (A)
The greater the cross-section of the conductor the smaller the resistance (more
electrons can flow). The smaller the cross-section the greater the resistance. If the
cross sectional area is double the resistance is halved. The resistance is therefore
inversely proportional to cross-sectional area. If one thinks of pumping fluid down a
pipeline, it would be easier to pump the bigger the diameter of the pipeline and more
difficult the smaller the diameter.
The relationship between all the above factors is given by the resistance (R)
formula as:
R = ρl
A
ACTIVITY 1. If the length of a material is doubled and its cross sectional area
is doubled, what is the effect on its resistance?
Temperature
The resistance of all pure metals (conductors) increases with an increase in

temperature and they are said to have a positive temperature coefficient.
The resistance of insulators and semi conductors and thermistors decreases with an
increase in temperature and are said to have a negative temperature coefficient. Some
alloys such as constantan, eureka and manganin show very little resistance change
over their working temperature range.
FIXED RESISTORS
These are resistors the value of which cannot usually be changed. In other words
they are not variable resistors.
The symbols used in drawings and other documents typically are those shown in
figure 33. Where other symbols are used check the drawing/manual legend.
Fig. 33 FIXED RESISTOR SYMBOLS
- 30 -
When a designer chooses a resistor certain factors must be taken into consideration.
These are tolerance, power rating, and stability. Due to mass-production techniques
each resistors’ exact value cannot be guaranteed and the tolerance specifies the
maximum and minimum value of resistance the resistor will have eg, 200Ω ± 10% -
this will have a resistance value from 180Ω to 220Ω.
All resistors have a power rating (in watts) which indicates the maximum power that
can be dissipated without the temperature rise being such that damage occurs to the
resistor. If the current through the resistor is exceeded the resistor will overheat and
burn out. In electronic circuits typical ratings are ¼W, ½W, 1W and 2W. The greater
the physical size, the greater its rating.
The stability of a resistor is its ability to maintain its resistance value over a period of
time within a working circuit. This can be an important factor in some electronic
circuits.
Types of Fixed Resistors
In the Carbon Film type, a film of carbon is deposited on a ceramic rod and protected
by an insulating coating. Typical tolerance is ± 5% with a range from just a few ohms
to 10MΩ. Ratings are from 0.125W to 1W with very good stability.
Fig. 34 CARBON FILM RESISTOR
The Metal Film Type is manufactured by a metal oxide being deposited on a ceramic
rod and protected by an insulating coating. The ratings are typically 0.5W with a
tolerance of ± 1% and offer high stability.
The Wire Wound Resistors have low tolerance and high stability, and any resistor
over 1W will be of the wire wound type.
The wire is either nichrome, constantan or manganin wound on a former and given a
protective coating. They have resistance values from 1Ω to 25kΩ and can operate up
to 10 to 20W.
Fig. 35 WIRE WOUND RESISTOR
If a very large power rating resistor is required the resistor may be metal bars within
a cage to allow air circulation for cooling.
- 31 -
Resistor Coding
One method employed for coding is shown figure 36. The resistor has four bands as
shown. The first band is the first digit, the second band gives the second digit and
the third band gives the multiplier. The fourth band gives the tolerance - typically ±
5% or ± 10%. If no fourth band is present the tolerance is ± 20%.
Table 3 shows the colour coding.
Fig. 36 RESISTOR CODING
Colour Significant Decimal Tolerance

Figure Multiplier (per cent)
No band 20
Silver 0.01 10
Gold 0.1 5
Black 0 1
Brown 1 10
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Grey 8 108
White 9 109
TABLE 3 COLOUR CODING OF RESISTORS
Some resistors with a tolerance of ±1% are marked with a brown band and those with
a tolerance of ±2% are marked with a red band.
Some resistors have a fifth band which indicates a reliability factor which is a
percentage of failure per 1000 hours of use eg, a 1% failure rate would indicate that
one in every hundred resistors will not remain within tolerance after 1000 hours of
use.
- 32 -
Band 5 colours indicate the following percentages:
Brown - 1
Red - 0.1
Orange - 0.01
Yellow - 0.001
On some resistors, due to their shape and size, the colour coding is difficult to apply
so a printed code is used. In the example shown R means x 1, K means x 1000 and M
means x 1,000,000. The position of the letter gives the decimal point.
0.47Ω = R47
3.3Ω = 3R3
47Ω = 47R
220Ω = 220R
4.7kΩ = 4K7
68kΩ = 68K
4.7MΩ = 4M7
Tolerances are indicated by adding a letter at the end.
F = ±1%
G = ±2%
J = ±5%
K = ±10%
M = ±20%
ACTIVITY 2. Using the band method, find the colour code for the following
resistors. Using the printed code write down the values for these
resistors.
(1) 47kΩ ± 5%
(2) 5.6kΩ ± 10%
(3) 3.0Ω
If a 47kΩ resistor has a tolerance of ±10% then its resistance can be in the range
42.3kΩ to 51.7kΩ, and since exact values of fixed resistors are unnecessary in most
electronic circuits, only preferred values are manufactured.
The 47kΩ would cover values between 43kΩ and 52kΩ and the next preferred value
would be 56kΩ ±10% which covers 50.4kΩ to 61.6kΩ so there is minimum overlap
between them.
Table 4 shows the preferred values. The figures in the table can be multiplied by any
power of ten to obtain the required range.
blank
- 33 -
PERCENTAGE TOLERANCE
20% 10% 5%
10 10 10
11
12 12
13
15 15 15
16
18 18
20
22 22 22
24
27 27
30
33 33 33
36
39 39
43
47 47 47
51
56 56
62
68 68 68
75
82 82
91
TABLE 4 – TOLERANCE OF RESISTANCE VALUES
VARIABLE RESISTORS
These are resistors where the value can be changed either as an adjustment by an
engineer or automatically whilst the system is running.
Fig. 37 VARIABLE RESISTOR SYMBOLS
- 34 -
In their most basic form they consist of a circular or straight track of carbon or a wire
wound resistor with a moveable wiper arm. The movement of the wiper arm may be
circular around a pivot or hinge or it may move linearly along a track. Figure 38
shows a circular type.
Fig. 38 CIRCULAR RESISTOR
There are two ways of using a variable resistor; as a rheostat or as a potentiometer.

When used as a rheostat (figure 39) it controls the current in a circuit eg, current to a
lamp – the lamp can be made to burn brighter by increasing the current to it or
dimmer by reducing the current. So the variable resistor changes the resistance in
the circuit and hence the current.
Fig. 39 RHEOSTAT CIRCUIT
When used as a potentiometer it is used to provide a variable voltage from a fixed

supply (figure 40).
Fig. 40 POTENTIOMETER CIRCUIT
- 35 -
THERMISTORS
These are ‘thermally sensitive resistors’ which are made of materials whose resistance
changes considerably with a small temperature change.
Most thermistors decrease their resistance with an increase in temperature ie, they
have a negative temperature coefficient. They are made in either rod, disc or bead
form, and are made of oxides of nickel, manganese, copper, cobalt and other
materials. They are used extensively on aircraft as temperature sensors in heating,
air conditioning and battery systems.
There are some thermistors that have a positive temperature coefficient. The material
used for their construction is barium titanate and they may be used in circuits to
limit current due to excessive temperature rise.
VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTORS
Sometimes known as varistors, these are devices whose resistance reduces as the
applied voltage is increased. They are manufactured from silicon carbide.
Applications include transient voltage suppression, voltage stabilisation and switch
contact protection eg, it is connected across the component to be protected and
draws only a small current at its normal operating voltage.
However, should the voltage increase, (ie a surge) its resistance reduces, and it
absorbs some of the energy in the surge by diverting current through itself and away
from other circuits.
Fig. 41 SYMBOL - VOLTAGE DEPENDENT RESISTOR
DC CIRCUITS
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states “The current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage across it if the temperature and other physical conditions do not change”.
(Georg Simon Ohm German physicist 1787 – 1854)
This law expressed the relationship between current, voltage and resistance.
- 36 -
Usually written down in the form:
V
I =
R
V=IxR
V
R =
I
Provided two of the variables are known in a circuit the third can be found by
calculation.
The ‘ohm triangle’ (figure 42) might help you to remember the formula. Draw the
triangle as shown with the V(olts) at the top of the triangle and the I & R at the
bottom. Cover-up the quantity that needs to be found, and the correct relationship is
left uncovered. For example if I is the unknown value, covering it up leaves V over R
(V/R). If I and R are known then covering V up leaves I times R (I x R). Remember, if
two are unknown then it is not possible to get any solution. (For the mathematicians
amongst us it would need two simultaneous equations to solve for two unknowns
and this is outside the scope of this book.)
Fig. 42 THE OHM TRIANGLE
This is a fundamental law of electricity and must be remembered. Given two of the
properties you must be able to find the third.
Examples
With reference to figure 43 (1) – find R, (2) – find I, and (3) – find V. The worked
examples are shown below.
Fig. 43 EXAMPLES
- 37 -
(1) V = 6V, I = 2A, so
V 6
R= = = 3 ohms
I 2
(2) V = 100V, R = 50Ω, so
V 100
I= = = 2 Amps
R 50
(3) I = 2A, R = 15Ω, so
V = I x R = 15 x 2 = 30 volts
ACTIVITY 3. (1) The current through a circuit of resistance 5kΩ is

5mA. Calculate the voltage applied to the circuit.
(2) A voltage of 250V is applied to a resistance of 5MΩ.
Calculate the current in the circuit.
(3) A current of 5mA flows through a circuit with an applied
voltage of 100V. Calculate the resistance of the circuit.
Series Circuits
Where several components are connected end to end in such a way that there is only
one path for the current to flow and the same current flows through each component,
then we have a series circuit.
Fig. 44 SERIES CIRCUIT
There are three points to note about a series circuit (figure 44):
1. The current is the same for all components in the circuit.

2. The voltage drop across each component when added together equals
the total supply voltage (VS = V1 + V2 + V3).
3. The total resistance of the circuit is the sum of the individual resistors
(RT = R1 + R2 + R3).
- 38 -
Example (figure 45)
Fig. 45 EXAMPLE
The total resistance of the circuit (figure 45) is:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 6 + 8 + 10
= 24Ω
V
The current in the circuit is I =
R
12
I= = 0.5A
24
Being a series circuit this is the current throughout the whole circuit.
As the emf (12V) forces electrons through the resistors there is a loss of voltage
through each resistor called a voltage drop. The voltage drop, using ohms law is I x R.
It is essential when finding ‘voltage drops’ that only the voltage and current to that
particular resistance is used.
In our case voltage drop across R1 = I x R1
= 0.5 x 6 = 3V
Voltage drop across R2 = 0.5 x 8 = 4V
Voltage drop across R3 = 0.5 x 10 = 5V
Vsupply = V1 + V2 + V3
12 = 3 + 4 + 5
ACTIVITY 4. For both circuits shown below (figure 46) find:
(a) The total resistance.

(b) The total current.
(c) The voltage drop across each resistor.
- 39 -
Fig. 46 ACTIVITY 4
Voltage Division
Because a voltage drop is developed across a resistor when current flows through it,
several resistors can be used in series across an applied voltage to give a division of
voltage in a circuit. When resistors are connected in this way it is called a Potential
Divider.
In figure 47 the total resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 12 + 6 + 2 = 20Ω. Knowing the

total resistance and also the voltage the current can be calculated:
V 40
I= = = 2A
R 20
This current flowing in the circuit develops a voltage drop across each resistor.
In R1, the voltage drop V1 is IR1 = 2 x 12 = 24V

40V = applied voltage.
Fig. 47 A POTENTIAL DIVIDER
- 40 -
From this we can see that the applied voltage of 40V is divided between the resistors
in proportion to their resistance, and the proportion method of division as described
above may be used as a double-check.
This can be developed a stage further. For example, using figure 48.
Each voltage drop has a polarity as indicated in the drawing. If we ‘earth’ point D
[figure 48 (a)] then because R3 has a voltage drop of 4V across it in the polarity
shown, we say that point C is 4V positive with respect to earth. Similarly, because R2
has a voltage drop of 12V across it in the polarity shown we can say that point B is
12V positive with respect to point C and 12 + 4 = 16V positive with respect to earth.
In the same way point A will be found to be 40V positive with respect to earth.
Fig. 48 OUTPUT VOLTAGES RELATIVE TO EARTH
If point C is earthed then the voltages at the various output points would be as
shown in figure 48(b). The voltage division is the same but the voltages at the output
relative to earth are different. Point D is minus 4V with respect to earth. Point B is
12V with respect to earth and point A is 36V with respect to earth.
Note in the last paragraph the word ‘positive’ was not used when dealing with point A
and B voltages. It is generally assumed positive unless the word ‘negative’ is used.
Potential dividers are used to provide different voltages for various circuits from a
single supply voltage.
Parallel Circuits
Components connected in such a way that they provide alternative paths for current
flow are Parallel connected and the circuit is a Parallel Circuit (figure 49).
- 41 -
Fig. 49 PARALLEL RESISTORS
There are three points to note about parallel circuits:
(1) The voltage is common across all the components.

(2) The current (IT) divides between the components depending on the value
of each resistance. If they all have the same resistance value then they
will all have the same current irrespective of the voltage. For those
resistors having a low resistance the current in that resistor will be high
and for high value resistors the current will be low. In any event the
total current (IT) will be the sum of all the individual resistor currents.
NOTE: The current through the component is dependent on the voltage

applied and the resistance of the component, it is not affected by the
resistance of any other component connected in parallel with it. The
total current flowing into a system is the same as that flowing out. So
supply current IT = I1 + I2 +I3.
(3) The total resistance of the circuit can be found by the formula
1 1 1 1
= + + ……..
R T R1 R 2 R 3
Example 1
Fig. 50 EXAMPLE 1 & 2
- 42 -
For the parallel circuit [figure 50 (a)) find the total resistance:
1 1 1
= +
R T 10 10
1 1 +1 2
= = (add fractions by using a common denominator)
R T 10 10
10
RT = = 5Ω (invert both sides of the equation)
2
(Remember, for the non-mathematicians amongst us, an equation cannot be inverted

(unless you really know what you are doing) while there is a plus or minus sign as
part of the fraction. So work the equation out to a simple fraction without any plus or
minus signs and then invert.)
Note. There is a quick way of find out the resistance of two resistors in parallel of the
same value, without using the formula. Where resistors of the same value are in
parallel the total resistance is half one of them. This idea can be extended to any
number of equal resistances connected in parallel.
Their total resistance will be one resistance divided by the number of resistors in
parallel. For example, the total resistance of 10 resistors in parallel each of
10
10Ω would be = 1Ω.
10
Example 2
Calculate the total resistance of the circuit shown in figure 50 (b).
1 1 1 1 1 2 +1 3
Using the formula = + = + = =
R T R1 R 2 6 12 12 12
12
RT = = 4Ω
3
product
Another way of doing this with two unequal resistors is the rule.
sum
In this case R1 = 6Ω
R2 = 12Ω
product = 6 x 12
sum = 6 + 12
product 72
∴ = = 4Ω
sum 18
Note also another important point. The total resistance is always less than the lowest
resistor in the parallel circuit.
- 43 -
Example 3
Find the total resistance of the circuit in figure 51 (a)
Fig. 51 EXAMPLE 3 & 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 +1+ 3 6
= + + = + + = =
R T R1 R 2 R 3 6 12 4 12 12
12
RT = = 2Ω
6
Example 4
In figure 51 circuit (b) find the total resistance of the circuit and the current through
each branch of the circuit.
Total resistance:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 + 3 + 1 10
= + + = + + = =
R T R1 R 2 R 3 5 10 30 30 30
30
RT = = 3Ω
10
The voltage across each branch is the same (60V).
V 60
So I1 = = = 12A
R1 5
V 60
I2 = = = 6A
R 2 10
V 60
I3 = = = 2A
R 3 30
∴ Total Current IT = I1 + I2 + I3
= 12 + 6 + 2 = 20A
- 44 -
Proof: Total resistance = 3Ω
V 60
∴ IT = = = 20A
RT 3
ACTIVITY 5. Find the values of R1, R2 and R3 in figure 52.
Fig. 52 ACTIVITY 5
Series/Parallel Circuits
Most electrical supply systems use parallel circuits – industrial premises, domestic
house wiring, aircraft. Some systems use series circuits – Christmas-tree lights for
example. Some electrical systems use both series and parallel circuits in the one
circuit (called series/parallel circuits). A series/parallel circuit is shown in figure 53.
Take a moment to study figure 53. When current flows (IT) it will flow down the left
hand side of the circuit and divide into three to flow through the three parallel
branches (3, 12, and 4kΩ). The 3 currents will then re-join to form IT to flow through
the 500Ω resistor back to the negative side of the supply.
The voltage can be compared to pressure in a fluid system – with all the pressure on
the left hand side and zero pressure on the right. This means that the same voltage
acts on the 3 parallel resistors (all with the same voltage) and this voltage will be
dropped across them. This leaves the remaining voltage to be dropped across the
500Ω resistor so the voltage leaving this resistor is zero.
Fig. 53 SERIES/PARALLEL CIRCUIT
- 45 -
This means that the voltage drop across the parallel resistors (VP) is the same for
each of these resistors. The voltage drop across the series resistor is VS and the total
for the whole circuit is the addition of VP and VS which will equal 12V.
When working out the total resistance of this type of circuit always deal with the
parallel branch first and reduce them to one value of resistance. Then, effectively,
this becomes a series circuit. So in this case find out the total resistance for the 3, 12
and 4kΩ resistors first. Thus one resistance could take their place as a series resistor
in series with the 500Ω resistor, then find out the total value of the two series
resistors.
ACTIVITY 6. For this circuit find: (a) The total circuit resistance.
(b) The total circuit current.
(c) The current through the 4kΩ resistor.
KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS
Kirchhoff (Gustav Robert - German physicist 1824 – 1887) made several discoveries
in the field of electrics. Some of his laws we need to commit to memory.
Kirchhoff’s First Law (sometimes called the Current Law)
This states that the total current flowing towards a junction in a circuit is equal to
the total current flowing away from that junction, that is, the algebraic sum of the
currents flowing towards the junction is zero.
ΣΙ = 0 at the junction
Where Σ means ‘the algebraic sum of’.
In more basic terms this can be expressed as the total current flowing towards a
junction must equal the total current flowing away from the junction.
To put it in hydraulic terms – all the fluid flowing to a pipeline junction must equal
all the fluid flowing away from that junction – unless there are leaks of course.
Fig. 54 JUNCTION 1
- 46 -
In figure 54 there is 11 amps flowing towards the junction (5A + 6A) and only 4 amps
flowing away plus the unknown current. This unknown current must be
11A – 4A = 7A to make a total of 11A flowing towards the junction and 11A flowing
away.
With reference to figure 55, what is the value and direction of the unknown current?
Fig. 55 JUNCTION 2
A current of 6A flows towards the junction and a current of 5A flows away from the
junction (3 + 2). According to Kirchhoff's 1st law the current flowing towards a
junction must equal that leaving the junction, so to make up the 6A leaving the
junction, the unknown current must be 1A flowing from the junction.
ACTIVITY 7 Find the value of the currents I1, I4, I6 and I7, and the
direction of I4 in the following circuit (figure 56).
Fig. 56 ACTIVITY 7
Kirchhoff’s Second Law (sometimes known as the Voltage Law)
This law states that in any closed circuit, the algebraic sum of the potential drops is
equal to the algebraic sum of the emf’s acting in the loop.
ΣΙR=ΣΕ (I x R = V)
Putting it another way - all the voltage drops in a closed circuit when added together
equals the applied voltage to that circuit (we have already covered some of this). So in
figure 57: VT = V1 + V2 + V3.
- 47 -
Fig. 57 VOLTS DROPS – 1
With reference to figure 58. The total voltage applied to the circuit is 180V (two
batteries 120V plus 60V) and the voltage drops around the circuit are 135 + 45 =
180V. In figure 59 the batteries are connected in opposition so their total output is
the sum of their differences. That is Vt = 120V – 60V = 60V. 60V equals the sum of
the voltage drops (45 + 15 = 60V).
Fig. 58 VOLTS DROPS - 2
- 48 -
Fig. 59 VOLTS DROPS - 3
ACTIVITY 8. Find the voltage drop across resistors R2 and R3 in figure 60.
Fig. 60 ACTIVITY 8
blank
- 49 -
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
(Named after Sir Charles Wheatstone British physicist 1802 – 1875)
The arrangement of resistors shown in figure 61 is called a Wheatstone Bridge. It is

used in many systems to include:
* Temperature measurement – acting as a temperature control

device for heated windscreens for example.
* Measuring strain – fitted to the landing gear of some aircraft for
the accurate measurement of aircraft weight and C of G position
calculation for example.
* Measuring electrical values. Used in measuring instruments.
Fig. 61 THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Note that the bridge usually consists of four resistors with a voltage supply across
them and a connection between them (shown as a meter in the drawing).
Consider the current flow (figure 61) from A to D (you could think of it as fluid flow in
a set of pipelines) and assume that all the resistors are the same value then the same
amount of current will flow down arm ABD as in arm ACD. The voltage at B will be
the same as at C (there will be the same volts drop across R1 as R2) and a voltmeter
placed between B and C will show zero (there is no voltage difference between the
two). In this condition the bridge is said to be balanced.
A volts drop is sometimes expressed as an IR drop (V = I x R) so:
I1R1 = I2R2
As the voltage drop across R3 must equal to the voltage drop across R4 then:
I1R3 = I2R4
Dividing one equation by the other:
I1 R 1 I 2 R 2
=
I1 R 3 I 2 R 4
- 50 -
R1 R 2
= =
R3 R 4
So ‘at balance’ this ratio of resistances is true.
The Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure unknown resistances. For example.
Assuming R4 in figure 62 is the unknown resistor. R3 is a calibrated variable resistor
with R1 and R2 being of known values.
Fig. 62 FINDING THE UNKNOWN RESISTOR
R3 is adjusted until the voltmeter reads zero (bridge balanced) and the value of R4 can
be found by:
R 2R 3
R4 =
R1
If the bridge is used for automatic temperature control, for example, windscreen
heating, then one of the resistors (R3) is placed inside the screen so it picks up the
heat from the screen. The other three are usually located in the windscreen control
unit and all wired together as a Wheatstone bridge.
For example, using figure 62. Assume resistors R1, R2, and R4 are all fixed known
resistors and R3 is the variable resistor (variable by heat) fitted in the windscreen. The
connection across the bridge is shown connected to a voltmeter but for control
purposes this would be a relay able to switch the windscreen heater on and off.
Initially when the windscreen heater is switched on the bridge is unbalanced (with
the relay switched ON). The ON relay causes the windscreen to heat up so R3 heats
up and its resistance increases. When its resistance gets to a value where the bridge
becomes balanced, no voltage is felt across the bridge, the bridge becomes balanced
and the relay drops out (spring operated), and the heating current ceases. The
windscreen starts to cool down. As it cools so resistor R3 cools, its resistance
decreases and, at a set value of bridge imbalance the relay is pulled back in and the
heater is switched back ON. This cycle is repeated throughout the length of the flight.
- 51 -
ACTIVITY 9. Assuming the bridge is balanced in figure 63, work out the
value of the unknown resistor R13.
Fig. 63 ACTIVITY 9
POWER, WORK & ENERGY
Energy and Work
Energy is the capacity to do work. A suspended weight has Potential Energy, and has
potential to do work when it falls under the influence of gravity. A moving object has
Kinetic Energy because it can do work when it impacts with something.
The applied voltage in an electric closed circuit causes the electrons to move and
when they do, energy is transferred from the source to the circuit to the load eg,
when a lamp is switched on it produces heat and light energy from the circuit.
All energy is measured JOULES* (J) including electrical energy. One joule of electrical
energy is when one Coulomb passes through a component and the voltage across the
component is one volt ie:
Joules (J) = Coulomb (C) x Volts (V). (1)
As one Coulomb is one amp (I) maintained in a circuit for one second (t)
then C = I x t. Substituting this into equation (1) gives:
Joules = V x I x t
∴ energy = VIt joules
*James Prescott Joule 1818 – 1889
Example. How much energy is expended when a 300Ω resistor is connected to a

150V supply for 1 hour?
- 52 -
Energy = V x I x t Joules
150
= 150 x x 60 x 60
300
= 270,000 joules = 270kJ or .27MJ
Note. The current (I) is found using Ohm’s law where I = V/R = 150/300.
Power
This is the rate at which work is done and is measured in WATTS (W). It is the power
(P) developed in a circuit when an applied voltage of one volt causes a current of one
amp to flow. So:
P = VxI
V
We know from ohm’s law that I = so substituting in the formula
R
V V2
P=Vx =
R R
also V = I x R
So substituting again
P = IxRxI
= I 2R
So the three formulas for power are:
VxI
I2R and
V2
Watts
R
Energy (work done)

As Power =
time taken
= VIt Joules
t seconds
So Watts = Joules/sec (Joules per second), and can be expressed as Watt seconds.
- 53 -
Example 1
If the energy supplied to a circuit for 2 hrs is 200 Joules/sec. Find the total energy
expended.
200 Joules/sec = 200 watts

Watts = VxI
Energy expended = VxIxt
= 200 x 2 x 60 x 60
= 1.44 MJ (Mega Joules)
Examples 2
Work out the power in each circuit (a), (b) and (c) in figure 64.
Fig. 64 EXAMPLE 2
(a) Power = V x I = 12 x 2 = 24W
(b) Power = I2R = 2 x 2 x 6 = 24W
V2 12 x 12
(c) Power = = = 24W
R 6
Power Rating of Components
When current passes through a resistor, the resistor becomes hot, and if it gets too
hot it could be damaged. The heat developed by a current in a resistor is I2R Watts,
thus the rate at which heat is produced is proportional to the square of the current.
Therefore, if the current is doubled the rate at which heat is produced goes up four
times.
The same consideration would apply to voltage across a resistor. Power is equal to
V2
, so if V is doubled so power goes up four times.
R
Electrical components can only withstand a certain amount of heat without damage
and it is normal to give a wattage rating on the identification plate of the component.
If this rating is exceeded the component will overheat.
- 54 -
For example a 6V 12W lamp means when connected to a 6V supply its resistance
develops 12W of power and it is intended to work at this rating ie, it consumes 12W
only at the correct voltage. However, if it is connected to a higher voltage than 6V the
power is increased and the lamp may burn out.
As we have seen previously, resistors are rated in different wattage ratings, the larger
the resistor the greater the wattage rating ie, it can dissipate the heat better.
If a 4Ω resistor has a power rating of 36 watts, the maximum current it could carry
would be:
P = I 2R
36 = I2 x 4
36
I2 = =9
4
I = √9 = 3 amps maximum.
V2
Also P=
R
V2
36 =
4
V2 = 4 x 36 = 144
V = √144
V = 12 volts maximum.
So the current must not exceed 3 amps and the voltage must not exceed 12V.
Example. For the circuit shown in figure 65 find:
(a) The power developed across each resistor.

(b) The total power in the circuit and also indicate what the power rating of
each resistor should be.
Fig. 65 EXAMPLE
- 55 -
Total resistance of the circuit is 6 + 18 = 24Ω, so current equals:
V 12
I= = = 0.5A
R 24
As it is a series circuit the current through both resistors is the same.
The power consumption across the 6Ω resistor is I2R which equals:
0.5 x 0.5 x 6 = 1.5W
Across the 8Ω resistor the power is I2R which equals:
0.5 x 0.5 x 18 = 4.5W
The total power consumption is the sum of the two 4.5 + 1.5 = 6W
As a check V x I = 12 x 0.5 = 6W
The 6Ω resistor would be rated at 2W and the 18Ω resistor at 5W, using the nearest
standard wattage above the calculated power.
A point worth noting, when calculating power across a component using the voltage
or current formulas, it must be the voltage across the component and the current
through it that has to be used.
ACTIVITY 10. Find the power dissipated across R1, R2 and R3 in the circuit shown
in figure 66. Also find the energy expended if the circuit is supplied
for 1 minute.
Fig. 66 ACTIVITY 10
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
All electrical components have internal resistance. In batteries it is mainly due to the
resistance of the electrolyte; in generators it is mainly due to the machine windings
and the brushes.
The voltage across the open-circuited terminals of a supply is equal to the emf. When
a load is connected to the supply the load current flows through the internal
resistance of the supply and causes an internal resistance volts drop.
- 56 -
With reference to figure 67 the on-load terminal voltage V of the battery is equal to
the emf (E) minus the internal resistance volts drop (Ir). So:
V = E - Ir
This means that a certain amount of the emf at the cell is not available to drive the
current round the circuit because it is ‘lost’ inside the battery.
Where V = Terminal voltage

E = emf
I = Current
r = Internal resistance
Fig. 67 INTERNAL RESISTANCE
If the battery is 1.5V with an internal resistance of 1Ω and supplying a lamp which
took 0.3A then the internal volts drop would be:
0.3 (I) x 1 (r) = 0.3V.
So the terminal voltage would be 1.5 – 0.3V = 1.2V.
The 1.2V is what would be measured when a voltmeter is placed across the battery
terminals. The internal volts drop cannot be measured directly.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
This states that:
Maximum power is developed in a load when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance of the supply.
- 57 -
The example in figure 68 shows a battery with an EMF of 12V and an internal
resistance r of 2Ω supplying a load RL.
I= E = 12
r + RL 2 + RL
and power in the load = I2R.
Fig. 68 BATTERY – INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Plotting load power against load resistance using the values from the table in figure
69 produces the graph as shown in figure 69.
Fig. 69 GRAPH OF LOAD POWER AGAINST LOAD RESISTANCE
When the load resistance and supply internal resistance are equal, the load and
supply are said to be ‘matched’. The transference of maximum power from a supply
to a load is often required in electronic circuits, and a typical example being the
matching of an audio amplifier to a loudspeaker.
- 58 -
CAPACITANCE
In general terms it is the ability of two conductors positioned close to each other to
store a charge (pd) between them.
Figure 70 shows a battery connected to two metal plates positioned close to, but not
touching, each other. When the switch is closed, electrons from plate X are attracted
by the positive plate of the battery. They are repelled by the negative plate of the
battery to plate Y of the capacitor.
As we have removed electrons from plate X of the capacitor, it becomes positively

charged, and as electrons have been added to plate Y then it becomes negatively
charged. This momentary movement of electrons is called the ‘charging current’.
When the voltage across the capacitor equals the battery voltage, electron flow stops.
The plates now have a positive and negative charge between them and if we open the
switch this stored energy or charge remains in the capacitor.
Fig. 70 CHARGING A CAPACITOR
The capacitor stores an electric charge and in its simplest form described so far
consists of two parallel plates separated by an insulator known as a dielectric - air in
this case.
The property of a capacitor to store an electric charge when its plates are at different
potentials is known as capacitance.
A close analogy in hydraulics is the hydraulic accumulator. It will store pressure

which it will release quickly when required. The capacitor will store charge as a
voltage which it will release quickly when required.
We can get a similar discharge rate from a battery by shorting the terminals (THIS IS
DANGEROUS. NOT TO BE ATTEMPTED) but it destroys the battery. The capacitor
can be charged and discharged an infinite number of times without damage. LARGE
CAPACITORS CAN ALSO BE DANGEROUS WHEN CHARGED.
The capacitor can therefore be used to store charge - for engine igniter plugs for
example, but it can also be used as a transducer – fuel tank capacity indicating
systems for example.
The capacitor effectively blocks dc current (except for the small initial current) but
allows ac to pass.
- 59 -
The unit of capacitance is the FARAD (F) (Michael Faraday British physicist 1791-
1867) which is defined as ‘the capacitance of a capacitor which has a potential
difference of one volt across its plates when it is charged by 1 Coulomb of electricity.
Q
C= and Q = CV Coulombs
V
The farad is a large unit and typically the microfarad (µF) (10-6) (0.000,001),
nanofarad (nF) (10-9) (0.000,000,001) and picofarad (ρF) (10-12) (0.000,000,000,001)
are used.
The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the formula: ½CV2 joules.
Going back to our capacitor in its charged state. We have created an electric field
between the two plates. In this field are atoms of the gases which make up air, and
figure 71 shows how these atoms are ‘stretched’ (protons attracted to the negative
plate and electrons to the positive plate).
Fig. 71 ATOMS OF THE DIELECTRIC (INSULATOR) UNDER STRESS

IN AN ELECTRIC FIELD
The stronger the field, the more energy is stored. We could ‘discharge’ the capacitor
by disconnecting the battery and connecting the ends of the wires together
connecting the two plates. This would discharge the capacitor quickly (with an
accompanying ‘fat spark’). The electrons would rush to equalise their potential and
the atoms in the dielectric would relax back to their normal position.
The electric field strength (E) experienced by the dielectric is given by the formula:
E = V volts per metre

d
where V = Voltage applied

d = distance between the plates
- 60 -
Factors which affect capacitance include:
* Area of plates.
* Their distance apart.
* The type of dielectric.
If the area of the plates is increased, this allows a greater charge to be held and
therefore plate area is directly proportional to capacitance.
By changing the distance between the plates, the capacitance will change. As
capacitance depends on the strength of the electric field, if the plates are moved
further apart (weaker field) capacitance decreases, if the plates are moved closer
together then the field is more concentrated and the capacitance is greater. The
capacitance is therefore inversely proportional to the distance between the plates.
The capacitance also depends on the dielectric material and its relative permittivity
(er) or dielectric constant (k). This is the ratio of the capacitance of the capacitor
having a given material to the capacitance of the capacitor with air as the dielectric.
The dielectric constant is just a number which indicates how much greater the
capacitance would be compared to using air as the dielectric.
For example, if a capacitor of 100µF with air (k value = 1) as the dielectric, has the
dielectric replaced with Porcelain (which has a k value of 6) then the capacitance will
be 600µF ie, it goes up six times. Some typical dielectric materials and their k values
are:
Dielectric Dielectric Constant (k value)
Air 1
Paper 2
Bakelite 4.5 to 5.5
Glass 5 to 10
Porcelain 6 to 7
The list above shows that different dielectric materials have differing abilities to store
electrical energy in the form of an electric field.
The relationship between the factors affecting capacitance and the capacitance of a
capacitor can be expressed in the following formula:
kA
C=
d
Where C = capacitance
k = dielectric constant
A = area of plates opposite each other
d = distance the plates are apart
- 61 -
Fig. 72 FACTORS AFFECTING CAPACITANCE (C)
Capacitors in Parallel
When capacitors are connected in parallel (figure 73) the voltage is the same across
each one, but their charges may be different.
Fig. 73 CAPACITORS IN PARALLEL
In figure 73 Q1 = charge on C1.

Q2 = charge on C2.
Total charge = QT = Q1 + Q2
So QT = Q1 + Q2 (Q = CV)
QT = C1 x V + C2 x V
∴ CTV = C1 x V + C2 x V
dividing through by V we get
CT = C1 + C2
- 62 -
For capacitors in parallel we add their values eg, a 250µF in parallel with 500µF
capacitor gives a total capacitance of 750µF. For capacitors in series we carry out a
calculation similar to the one for resistors in parallel.
Capacitors in Series
Figure 74 shows capacitors in series. The charge on each capacitor will be the same,
but the voltage for each one will be less than the supply voltage (VT).
Fig. 74 CAPACITORS IN SERIES
Q Q Q Q
As VT = V1 + V2 and as VT = then = +
CT C T C1 C 2
Dividing by Q gives:
1 1 1
= + ……….
C T C1 C 2
product
Note this is similar to resistances in parallel so the rule could also be used
sum
for two capacitors in series.
Example. If C1 = 300µF and C2 = 200µF in figure 74 then:
C1 x C 2 300 × 200 600

C= = = = 120µF.
C1 + C 2 300 + 200 5
Note that the answer is less than the smallest capacitor.
ACTIVITY 11. (1) Find the equivalent capacitance of a 5µF, a 10µF and a
30µF capacitor connected in series.
(2) In figure 75 what is the combined capacitance of the
network shown? Remember to sort out the parallel group
first.
- 63 -
Fig. 75 ACTIVITY 11
In some cases, to reduce the size of the capacitor for a given capacitance, an
interleaved construction is used (figure 76).
Fig. 76 INTERLEAVED CAPACITOR
The capacitor shown has seven plates and six dielectric interleaves, it therefore
effectively consists of six capacitors in parallel.
Working Voltage
The insulating materials forming the dielectric have very few free electrons available
to form a current under normal conditions, but if they are subjected to an intense
electric field, electrons may be torn from their atoms and current will flow, and
‘dielectric breakdown’ will have taken place.
The working voltage is the largest voltage (dc or peak ac) which can be applied across
a capacitor without the dielectric breaking down and is often marked on the capacitor
eg, 50V WKG. If it is exceeded dielectric breakdown will occur and current will flow.
Leakage Current
No dielectric is perfect, so each dielectric has a few free electrons, therefore when the
capacitor is charged, a small leakage current will pass between the plates and for
most practical purposes this can be ignored.
Capacitor Coding
Usually only ‘preferred’ values are manufactured, similar to resistors.
One method, similar to resistor coding, uses the sub-multiple to indicate the position
of the decimal point eg, 2.2nF is shown as 2n2 and 4.7pF as 4p7. In another method
the colour coding similar to the resistor colour code is used with tolerance figures.
- 64 -
A further method uses a version of the resistor colour code using numbers. The first
two numbers are the first two numbers of the value and the third is the number of
0’s to be added, eg:
101 100pF = 0.1nF = 0.0001µF
333 33000pF = 33nF = 0.033µF
Tolerances are printed as shown in the resistor colour code.
CHARGE & DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR
Charging a Capacitor Through a Resistor (CR Circuit)
When the switch is set to position 1 on the circuit (figure 77) it connects the battery
to the capacitor and current starts to flow with electrons flowing from the negative
side of the battery to plate b of the capacitor. Plate a will have electrons removed. The
current rises immediately to V/R amperes and the capacitor begins to charge.
Fig. 77 CHARGING A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR
V - VC
The capacitor continues to charge with the current falling steadily (since I =
R
amperes). The charging curve shows VC rising as an exponential curve and current (I)
falling. This will continue until capacitor voltage (VC) equals battery voltage (V).
Time Constant
The time constant (T) is the time taken for the capacitor to reach 63.2% of the applied
voltage, where T = CR seconds. Where T is in seconds, C is in Farads and R is in
ohms. The capacitor in figure 77 is fully charged in 5 CR seconds.
- 65 -
Discharge of a Capacitor Through a Resistor
Figure 78 shows the switch set to position 3. This will switch the battery out and
allow the capacitor to discharge with electrons moving from plate b to plate a via the
switch and the resistor. With the capacitor at V volts when the switch is closed the
capacitor will start to (rapidly) discharge into the circuit and voltage and current fall
as shown. The immediate current is V/R amperes.
In CR seconds the capacitor has discharged to 36.8% of the pd across the plates (ie,
it has fallen by 63.2%). The capacitor is fully discharged in 5 CR seconds and once
again the curve is an exponential curve.
If a component such as an igniter is connected into the circuit at position x then this
would produce a ‘fat’ spark on capacitor discharge.
Fig. 78 DISCHARGE OF A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTOR
At switch position 2 the battery circuit will be isolated, and if the capacitor is charged
it will remain so – except for any leakage.
Example. A circuit has a capacitance of 1µF and a resistance of 1MΩ with an applied
voltage is 100V. Find (a) The time constant, and (b) the time to fully charge the
capacitor.
(a) Time constant = CR seconds = (1 x 10-6) x (1 x 106) = 1 second. So this

capacitor takes 1 second for the voltage to rise to 63.2% of its final value.
(b) Time to fully charge = 5CR = 5 x (1 x 10-6) x (1 x 106) = 5 seconds.
ACTIVITY 12. A capacitor of 80µF and a resistance of 2MΩ are connected

in series across a 100V supply. Find:
(a) The time constant.

(b) The time to fully charge the capacitor.
(c) The charge on the capacitor.
- 66 -
TYPES OF CAPACITOR
Polyester Capacitor (figure 79)
Two strips of polyester film (dielectric) are wound between two strips of aluminium
(the plates). Values range from 0.01µF to 2.2µF, and it uses the resistor colour code
for the value of the capacitor. Has good all round properties.
Fig. 79 POLYESTER CAPACITORS
Mica Capacitor (figure 80)
Plates are formed by depositing a silver film on mica or using interleaved sheets of
metal foil (aluminium). Has high stability and low tolerance (±1%). Working voltage is
high and leakage current is low. Values range from 2.2pF to 10nF.
Fig. 80 EXAMPLES OF MICA CAPACITORS
Ceramic Capacitor
These come in many forms eg, disc, rod or plate, shaped with the ceramic as the
dielectric. Figure 81 shows a rod type. Small capacitance types range from 1nF to
1µF, with a high working voltage.
Other types may use a ceramic compound (barium titanate) which has a very high
dielectric constant so gives a very high capacitance for a small physical size. Stability
and tolerance are fair.
- 67 -
Fig. 81 CERAMIC CAPACITOR
Electrolytic Capacitor (figure 82)
This is known as a polarised capacitor. The most common form is the aluminium
type, which consists of thin sheets of aluminium foil interleaved with a material such
as paper saturated with an electrolyte.
When passed through an electrolytic bath, an oxide film forms on one of the
aluminium foil sheets which forms the positive. The oxide film will act as the
dielectric and usually the aluminium casing of the capacitor acts as the negative.
This provides a very large capacitance for a small physical size (up to 100,000µF).
The disadvantages include: has a wide tolerance, high leakage current, poor stability,
and can only be used in circuits where the supply never reverses, (the dc leakage
current maintains the oxide layer, reversed polarity will cause the layer to
breakdown). It must therefore always be connected the correct way round in a circuit.
The positive terminal is marked by a + sign or by a groove.
Fig. 82 ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
Variable Capacitors
These consist of a set of fixed stators and a set of movable (rotor) vanes usually made
of aluminium. The set of rotors are caused to move in and out between the stators,
without touching them. This changes the effective area between the rotors and
kA
stators (A in the equation C = ) and therefore changes the capacitance.
d
They usually have air as the dielectric and the range is typical from 50ρF to 500ρF.
Figure 83 shows a typical manually operated variable capacitor.
- 68 -
Fig. 83 VARIABLE CAPACITOR
Pre-set Capacitors or Trimmers
These are a smaller version of the air dielectric variable capacitor shown above but
the width of the gap (d in the equation) is usually varied as opposed to the effective
area (A).
There are mica compression and variable ceramic types available and typical values
range from 2ρF to 50ρF. Figure 84 shows one that is adjusted by a screwdriver to
move the plates closer or further apart.
Fig. 84 PRE-SET OF TRIMMER CAPACITOR
Testing of Capacitors
An analogue multimeter or digital multimeter set to the high resistance range can be
used to test a capacitor.
Non-polarised Types. If the resistance is less than about 1MΩ it will allow current
from the battery in the multimeter to ‘pass’ so it is leaking and is faulty. Note. There
may be an initial short burst of current as the capacitor charges up.
Polarised Types. For the dielectric to form in these types a positive voltage
must be applied to the positive side of the capacitor (marked + or a groove). In
most analogue multimeters the terminal marked – (black) is the positive of the
internal battery when selected to the ohms setting. For digital meters the
manufacturers’ instructions will have to be consulted.
When the capacitor is first connected to the multimeter its resistance is low but
rises as the dielectric forms. If it does not the capacitor is faulty.
- 69 -
Capacitors are used extensively in electronic circuits as well as high energy ignition
units (on engines) and external strobe lighting systems. For more details see the
modules in this series on Aircraft Electrical Systems, Jet Engines and Aircraft
Lighting.
ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES & EXTRA QUESTIONS (EQs)
Activity 1 No effect as R = ρl = ρ(l x 2)

a Ax2
EQ1. If the length is increased four times and the cross-sectional area is
decreased to one half its original value, what is the effect on its
resistance?
Answer: Eight times increase.
Activity 2 (1) Yellow, violet, orange, gold

(2) Green, blue, red, silver
(3) Orange, black, gold
Printed codes
(1) 47kJ
(2) 5k6k
(3) 3R
EQ2. What is the colour code for the following resistors?
(i) 150Ω ± 1%
(ii) 1MΩ ±10%
Answers: (i) brown, green, brown, brown.

(ii) brown, black, green, silver.
EQ3. What is the value of the following resistors?
(i) Red, red, green, gold.

(ii) Green, blue, yellow.
Answers: (i) 2.2 MΩ ± 5%

(ii) 560 kΩ
Activity 3 (1) V = I x R = 5 x 10-3 x 5 x 103 = 25V
(2) I = V = 250 = 50 x 10-6 = 50µA

R 5x106
(3) R = V = 100 = 20 x 103 = 20kΩ

I 5x10-3
EQ4. Calculate the current through a 2.8kΩ resistor when 5.6V is

applied to it.
Answer: 2mA
- 70 -
EQ5. If a voltage of 4V causes a current of 0.4mA to flow through a
resistor, calculate the value of the resistance.
Answer: 10kΩ
EQ6. A resistance of 6kΩ has a current of 1.5mA through it.

Calculate the voltage applied.
Answer: 9V
Activity 4 (1) (a) 25Ω (15 + 10)

(b) 10A (250/25)
(c) 150V across 15Ω resistor (10 x 15)
100V across 10Ω resistor (10 x 10)
(2) (a) 50Ω
(b) 4A
(c) 40V across 10Ω resistor
56V across 14Ω resistor
104V across 26Ω resistor
EQ7. For the circuit shown (figure 85), find the total resistance and the
voltage across each resistor.
Fig. 85 EQ7
Answer: a) 45Ω
b) R1 = 7V, R2 = 2V
Activity 5 R1 = 60/3 = 20Ω

R2 = 60/2 = 30Ω
R3 = 60/1 = 60Ω
EQ8. Find the total resistance of each of the circuits shown in figures 86 and
87.
Fig. 86 EQ8 (a)
- 71 -
Fig. 87 EQ8 (b)
Answer EQ8 (a) = 5kΩ

(b) = 1.5kΩ
Activity 6 First find the resistance of the parallel branch:
1 = 1 +1 +1 =4+1+3 = 8
RT 3 12 4 12 12
RT = 12 = 1.5kΩ
8
So total resistance = 1.5kΩ + 500Ω = 2kΩ
Total circuit current = I = V = 12 = 2

R 2kΩ 2x103
= 6mA
The voltage across the parallel branch is:
I x RT = (6 x 10-3) x (1.5 x 103)
= 9V
Current through 4kΩ resistor is:
I = V = 9 = 2.25mA
R 4 x 103
Activity 7 Kirchhoff's Laws
Current flowing towards point A must equal that flowing away from it,
as there is 10a flowing away (I2 + I3), I, must equal 10A.
Current flowing towards point C is 6A so there must be 6A flowing from

that point as I5 = 3A, then I4 = 3A flowing towards point B.
Flowing towards point B is now 7A so I6 must equal 7A flowing away

towards point D.
- 72 -
Activity 8 Kirchhoff's Laws
As total voltage across circuit is 120V then voltage across R2 must be

(120 - 45) = 75V.
The total voltage across R3 and R4 is 75V ∴voltage across R3 must

equal (75 - 35) = 40V.
Activity 9 Wheatstone Bridge
R9 = R12
R11 R13
72 = 24 ∴ R13 = 24 x 6 = 2Ω
6 R13 72
Work Done
EQ9. A 12V battery supplies a load of 120 ohms for 1 minute. Find the
work done.
Answer: 72 Joules
Activity 10 Resistance of parallel branch = 2Ω
Total Resistance of circuit = 2+2 = 4Ω
∴ Total Current = 24 = 6 amps

4
Voltage across R1 = 2x6 = 12 volts
Voltage across parallel branch = 24-12 = 12 volts
Power across R1 = V2 = 12 x 12 = 72 watts

R 2

R 6

R 3
Energy expended = VxIxt
= 24 x 6 x 60
= 8640 Joules
EQ10. A capacitor has a charge of 400 µC the applied voltage is 200V. What
is the value of the capacitor?
Answer: 2µF
- 73 -
In the above question find the energy stored.
Answer: 0.04 joules
Activity 11 (i) 3µF

(ii) 4µF
Fig. 88 EQ11
EQ11. Find the equivalent total capacitance of the circuit shown in

figure 88.
Answer: 2µF
Activity 12 1 (a) 160 seconds

(b) 800 seconds
(c) 0.008 Coulombs
EQ12. A capacitor of 20µF and a resistor of 4MΩ are connected in

series to a 200V supply and fully charged.
(a) Find the time taken for the capacitor to discharge to 36.8% of its
charged value.
(b) The time taken to fully discharge the capacitor.
Answer: (a) 80 seconds.

(b) 400 seconds.
EQ13. A 20pF capacitor is connected in series with a 1MΩ resistor. How long
will it take to fully charge the capacitor?
Answer: 100 µs
””””””””
- 74 -

EASA Mod 3 BK 1 Elect Fund

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

EASA Mod 3 BK 1 Elect Fund

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Book 1 Module 3

For best examination

Licence By Post © Copyright B EASA 66 3.1 to 3.9 ISSUE 10 0110

It is IMPORTANT to note that the information in this book is for study/training

When carrying out a procedure/work on aircraft/aircraft equipment you MUST

Tel: (+ 44) 01296 433871

There is a copy of the syllabus in an appendix to book 4.

Books in this module – 4.

THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Fig. 1 BASIC ATOMIC STRUCTURE

The mass of the neutron is similar to that of the proton.

ELEMENT SHELL - number of electrons in each shell ATOMIC

TABLE 1 ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF SOME ELEMENTS

Fig. 3 THE HELIUM ATOM

Figures 4 shows an atom of silicon, a very important element in the manufacture of

Fig. 4 THE SILICON ATOM

Figure 5 shows an atom of germanium, also a very important element in the

Normally atoms are electrically neutral, as far as charge is concerned, because

An ion is therefore an atom which has lost or gained an electron.

Metals represent a category of elements endowed with particular properties. One of

Fig. 6 CURRENT FLOW

There is a family of elements called semiconductors which have properties that

However, electron movement can be achieved by heating. As the temperature rises

Fig. 7 VALENCE ELECTRONS IN A SILICON CRYSTAL LATTICE

Another way to improve the conductivity of a semiconductor is by ‘doping’ the

Fig. 8 FREE ELECTRON IN SILICON (Si) DOPED

Static electricity is where an object picks up a static charge without, necessarily,

LIKE CHARGES REPEL UNLIKE CHARGES ATTRACT

* Charles Augustin de Coulomb French physicist 1736 – 1806.

Fig. 9 ELECTRIC LINES OF FORCE

Figure 10 shows a conductor containing free electrons moving at random among

Fig. 10 FREE ELECTRONS IN A CONDUCTOR

Fig. 11 MOVEMENT OF ELECTRONS WHEN CONNECTED

We have already seen how electricity can be produced by charging a material by

Fig. 12 THERMOCOUPLE PRINCIPLE

Another method, previously mentioned, is the heating of a material to emit electrons.

Heated cathodes are used in CRTs and fluorescent lighting.

THE PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELL

Fig. 14 LIGHT DEPENDENT RESIST0R

Fig. 15 PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELL

THE PIEZOELECTRIC EFFECT

Another method of generating electricity is by applying force or pressure to a crystal.

Piezoelectric transducers are used on vibration monitoring systems on engines and

A ‘cell’ is a device for ‘storing’, usually in a chemical form, an electrical charge.

Fig. 16 SIMPLIFIED ELECTRIC CELL

* Two electrodes in a single container filled with an electrolyte.

Fig. 17 THE VOLTAIC CELL

a) It gives rise to polarisation, ie it sets up a back emf.

Polarisation can be reduced by introducing a depolarising agent to combine with the

The Daniell Cell

Fig. 18 THE DANIELL CELL

The Leclanchē Cell

Fig. 19 THE LECLANCHĒ CELL (DRY CELL)

When an external circuit is completed between the terminals a chemical reaction

Fig. 20 THE MERCURY CELL

THE SECONDARY CELL OR BATTERY

Alkaline- 1.5 Voltage falls less steeply in use. Radios

Mercury 1.3 Almost constant voltage until Watches

Silver oxide 1.5 Similar to the mercury cell.

TABLE 2 - TYPES OF PRIMARY CELLS

The Lead Acid Cell

Fig. 21 EXPLODED VIEW OF TYPICAL LEAD/ACID SECONDARY CELL

A chemical reaction in the electrolyte causes lead sulphate to be deposited on both