CHAPTER 2: Nuclear Chemistry 1

Learning outcome

o Explain what is meant by radio activity

o Determine different types of radioactive decay.

o Understand the concepts of Half –life.

o Write balanced nuclear equations

o Compare nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

Nuclear chemistry
Deals with the structures and behaviors of atomic nuclei, tiny massive center of atoms. Study of reactions

involving the changes in atomic nuclei. Began with the discovery of natural radiation.

Topic 1: Atom and Atomic Processes

Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory (John Dalton: English chemist, mathematician, and philosopher)

1. Matter is composed of tiny, fundamental particles called atoms. Atoms of different elements are chemically
different; however, atoms of a given elements are of the same size, shape, mass and chemical properties.
2. Atoms of an element are the same but differ from the atoms of all other elements. Each element has unique
atoms.
3. Atoms can combine to form compounds. Compounds contain atoms combined in definite whole number ratios.

Atomic processes

- The sizes and energy scales of atomic and nuclear processes are very different. These differences allows to
consider them separately

Ionization

- Supposed that the collision of an atom with another atom is inelastic on of two things may happen:
a) excitation of one or both atoms to an excited state involving a change in electron configuration or
b) Ionization of one or both atoms, that is, removal of one or more of the atom’s electrons to form a positively
charged ion. For ionization to occur, an atomic electron must receive an energy that is at least equivalent to
its binding energy,

X-ray emission
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- X-ray refers to the electromagnetic radiation produced when an electron in an outer atomic shell drops down to
fill a vacancy in an inner atomic electron shell. The electron loses potential energy in this transition and radiates
the energy in the form of X-rays. Energy of the X-ray is given by the difference in the binding energies of the
electrons in the two shells, which, in turn, depends on the atomic number of the element.

TOPIC 2: Nucleus nomenclature

An atomic nucleus may be viewed as a clump or aggregate of protons and neutrons. All atoms contain nuclei and
surrounded by electrons. The nuclei of the atoms of a given element always have the same number f of protons; this is
the atomic number of the element.

Isotopes are atoms of a given element that contain different numbers of neutrons since most elements have atoms with
more than one combination of neutrons and protons and the type of nuclei found in the isotopes of the various
elements are called nuclides. Nuclide is a general term that refers to the various types of nuclei that are known.

Figure 2.1: The nuclide

A Atomic number (Z) - Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Z
X Mass number (A) - Number of nucleons
Nuclide is represented by a special symbol. The general symbol for a nuclide is given above. Few examples of nuclide are
the following:
Table 2.1: Common Nuclides of Some Elements
1 2 3
Hydrogen
1H 1 H 1 H
3 4
Helium
2 He 2 He
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12 13
Carbon
6 C 6 C
16 17 18
Oxygen
8 O 8 O 8 O
234 235 238
Uranium
U 92 92U U 92

In reading a nuclide symbol, element name first followed by the nucleon number (i.e. 1
1H, hydrogen one). Nuclide is

sometimes referred to by the element name followed by the nucleon number (i.e. 2
1

H; hydrogen-2).
There are about hundreds of know nuclides. If the nucleon number of a nuclide is known, the number of neutrons in a
nuclide is easily fund by subtracting the atomic number from the nucleon number: A-Z.

Table 2.2: Common nuclear particles

Mass (gram) Charge (coulomb)

Neutron 1.67495 x 10-24 0
Proton 1.67252 x 10 -24
1.6022 x 10 -19
Electron 9.1095 x 10-28 -1.6022 x 10 -19
Alpha particle 4.003 2+
Gamma ray 0 0

Nuclear Stability

-Concept of nuclear stability helps in identifying the stability of an isotope. Two (2) main factors that determines
nuclear stability are the neutron/proton ratio and the total number of nucleon in the nucleus.
- Sometimes, nuclear stability is determined by the difference between coulombic repulsion and strong nuclear
attraction.

Repulsion > Attraction; Nucleus disintegrate and emits radiation

Repulsion < Attraction; Nucleus is stable
Neutron-to-proton ratio (n/p) o Stable atoms of elements with low atomic number where n/p is
approximately equal to 1
o n/p >1; atomic number increase, more neutrons are needed to counteract
stronger coulomb repulsion from protons thus n/p > 1.

At n/p greater than zone of stability beta particle is emitted where neutron transforms into
proton and beta particle
At n/p less than zone of stability positron is emitted where proton transforms into neutron and
positron and undergoes electron capture. How to predict nuclear stability?

- Nuclei that contain 2, 8,20,50,82 or 126 protons or neutrons are more stable.
- Nuclei with even numbers of both proton and neutron are more stable than those with odd numbers.
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- All isotopes with atomic numbers higher than 83 are radioactive.

- Isotopes of technetium and promethium are radioactive.

- Density of nucleus is high estimated at 2 x 1014 g/cm3 which is 9 trillion

times denser than the densest element osmiu m

Examples

1. Arrange the proton, neutron, and electron in increasing mass.

a. Proton < electron < neutron
Compare the mass of the
b. Electron < proton < neutron subatomic particles given in
c. Electron < neutron < proton table 2.2
d. Neutron< electron < proton

2. The sum of the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons of a zinc ion, Zn +2

a. 94 Atomic number= 30 (# protons) #n= Z-A

Atomic mass=65 #n= 65-30
b. 92 Charge= #e-+#protons #n=35
+2= #e-+30 Ʃ= 30+28+35
c. 95
#e- =28 Ʃ= 93
d. 93
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3. The atomic weight of chlorine is 35.45 and its naturally occurring isotopes are Cl-35 and Cl-
37. What is the percentage abundance of Cl-35?
a. 95.8 %
x= abundance of Cl-35
35.45= 35x + [(1-x)*37] Average atomic mass is the
b. 98.7 %
x=0.775 weighted average of the atomic
c. 77.5% masses of an atom’s isotopes
% abundance of Cl
-35= 77.5%
based on their percentage
d. 75.0 % abundance.

TOPIC 3: Nuclear Decay Types

Nuclear decay- it occurs when the nucleus of an atom is unstable and spontaneously emits energy in the form of

radiation. The result is that the nucleus changes into the nucleus of one or more other elements. These daughter

nuclei have a lower mass and are more stable than the parent nucleus.

Nuclear transmutations

-High speed nuclear particle can collide with a nucleus and cause a nuclear reaction that produces a

different nucleus. Transmutation is the name given to such a nuclear

reaction.

Nuclear fission

-Splitting of a nucleus into smaller fragments when the nuclei of a certain isotopes are bombarded with

neutrons. Uranium-235 and plutonium-239 are fissionable materials. Fissionable atoms breaks into two
 CHAPTER 2: Nuclear Chemistry 6

fragments of roughly the same size when it is struck by a slow-moving neutron and at the same time more

neutrons are released. Neutrons then react with nuclei of the other atoms continuing the fission via chain

reaction and unleashes an enormous amount of energy.

Nuclear fusion

-Occurs when two nuclei combine to produce a nucleus of heavier mass. The sun is an extraordinary

energy source. The energy released from the sun is the result of a nuclear fusion. In solar fusion, hydrogen

nuclei are fused to make helium nuclei and the reaction requires two beta particles. Fusion reactions gives a

greater energy compared to fission reactions, but high temperatures are required to yield a reaction.

41H + 2 0e  4 He+
1 1 2 Energy

Nuclear decay processes

1. Alpha particle
-Basically a helium nucleus
-Commonly found during radioactive decay from heavier nuclide
-Net result is to increase the neutron to proton ratio

2. Beta particle
-Basically an electron
- The symbol ___ represents an electron in or from an atomic orbital
- The symbol ___ represents an electron that, although physically identical to any other
electron, comes from the nucleus and not from an atomic orbital.
-Emitted when the neutron to proton ratio is higher than the zone of stability
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3. Gamma ray

-Also known as high energy photon

- Usually a by-product of an alpha particle decay

4. Positron
-An antimatter of electron emitted when the neutron to proton ratio is lower than the zone of stability
(a proton s transferred to a neutron)

5. Electron capture
-Inner orbital electron is captured by the nucleus to increase neutron to proton ratio
-Usually accompanied by emission of gamma ray

Examples

1. Ra-226 decays by the alpha emission. What is its decay product?

2. If 23892U undergoes decay and found to produce 23490Bi, what other particle was emitted?

3. Thorium-230 decays by alpha and gamma emission, write the balanced nuclear equation.

4. Lead-210 decays by beta and gamma emission, write the balanced nuclear equation.

5. Plutonium-241 decays to give americium-241, write the balanced nuclear equation.

6. Bismuth-210 decays to give polonium-210, write the balanced nuclear equation.

7. Hydrogen-3, the radioactive isotope of hydrogen, decays by beta particle emission. What is the daughter

produced?
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TOPIC 4: Nuclear Properties

Nuclear masses
-One of the most important nuclear properties that can be measured is the mass. Nuclear or atomic masses are
usually given in atomic mass units (amu) or their energy equivalent. The mass unit u is defined so that the mass
of one atom of 12C is equal to 12.000 amu.
Nuclear binding energy
-Loss in mass shows up as energy given off to the surroundings. Amount of energy is obtained using
Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relationship.

E=mc 2
-In comparing stability, different number of nucleons must be accounted.
Nuclear binding energy/ nucleon = Nuclear binding energy/ number of nucleons
-Group 8B elements have the greatest binding energy/nucleon
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TOPIC 5: Radioactive Decay Kinetics

The number of nuclei in a radioactive sample that disintegrate during a given time interval decreases
exponentially with time. Because the nucleus is insulated by the surrounding cloud of electrons, this rate is
essentially independent of pressure, temperature, the mass action law, or any other rate-limiting factors that
commonly affect chemical and physical changes. As a result, this decay rate serves as a very useful means of
identifying a given nuclide. Since radioactive decay represents the transformation of an unstable radioactive
nuclide into a more stable nuclide, which may also be radioactive, it is an irreversible event for each nuclide.
 CHAPTER 2: Nuclear Chemistry 10

Half-life
Every radioisotope has a characteristic rate of decay measured by its half-life. Half-life is the time required for
one-half of the atoms of a radioisotope to emit radiation and to decay to products. After one half-life, one-half
of the original radioactive atoms have decayed into atoms of a new element.
t= kN t= time
t1/2= ln2/ k t 1/2= half-life
N= Noe-kt N= amount of substance at time t
N o= original amount of substance
k= decay constant
Table 5.1: Some typical half-lives
Nuclide Half-lives
Uranium-238 4.5 billion years
Plutonium-239 24,000 years
Carbon-14 5680 years
Americium- 241 458 years
Cobalt-60 5.3 years
Iodine-125 60 days
Radon-222 3.8 days
Iodine-123 13.3 hours
Californium-242 3.7 minutes
Lawrencium-256 8 seconds
Polonium-214 0.00016 second
Examples:
1. Nitrogen-13 emits beta radiation and decays to carbon-13 with hal-llife equal to 10 minutes. Assume a
starting mass of 2 g of nitrogen-13. a. How long is four half-lives
b. How many grams of that isotope will remain after four half-lives?
2. Manganese-56 is a beta emitter with a half-life of 2.6 hrs. What is the mass of the manganese-56 in a 1-mg
sample of the isotope after 10.4 hours?

Self-assessment
1. Alpha radiation is emitted during the disintegration of the following isotopes. Write the balanced
nuclear equations for their decay processes. Name the element produced in each case.
a. Uranium-238
b. Thorium-230
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2. The following isotopes are beta emitters. Write balanced nuclear equations for their decay processes. a.
Carbon-14
b. Potassium-40
3. The mass of cobalt-60 in a sample is found to have decreased from 0.8 g to 0.2 g in a period of 10.5
years. From this information, calculate the half-life of cobalt-60.
4. Write the nuclear equations for the conversion of C-13 to C-14.
5. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in an atom of iron-59?
6. What isotope remains after three beta particles and five alpha particles are lost from the thorium-234
isotope.
7. Define the difference between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
8. Give the nuclide symbol for
a. Potassium-40
b. Iodine-131
c. Cobalt-60
9. Radon-222 has a half-life of 3.82 days. If a sample of this substance had a mass of
0.50 g what would the mass of the sample be after 11.5 days?
10. Plutonium-239 is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 24,000 years. Give the balanced nuclear equation
for the alpha decay of plutonium-239.

References:
Dickinson T.R. (1995). Introduction To Chemistry (7th edition). NY: Wiley.
Walter L. etal (2006). Modern Nuclear Chemistry. NY: Wiley.
Wilbraham A.C. etal. (1993). Addison-Wesley Chemistry (3rd edition). CA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
CHAPTER 2: Nuclear Chemistry 12