University  of  Illinois                CHEM  101  

               at  Chicago                                      Preparatory  Chemistry  
 
 

Chapter  
1.1-­‐1.5  
 
9/30/17  
  1  
 Announcements  

•  HW  1  is  due  at  11:55pm  on  Thursday,  

September  7th.    
•  Worksheet    “week  2”  will  be  posted  tomorrow  
evening  (Blackboard  à  Course  Documents  à  
Discussion  Worksheets)  

 
 
2  
 Chemistry  You  May  Already  Know  

Chemistry:  
 
is  the  study  of  maPer  and  the  changes  that  maPer  undergoes.    

These  processes  are  all  things  that  you  can  observe  at  the  macroscopic  
level.  In  studying  chemistry,  you  will  learn  to  visualize  and  understand  
these  same  processes  at  the  submicroscopic  or  molecular  level.   3  
 All  about  MaCer:  ClassificaEons  and  ProperEes  

MaPer  
•  has  mass  and  occupies  space  (e.g.  it  has  volume).  
•  consists  of  atoms  and  molecules  in  moSon.  

Three main phases of matter

•  Solid (most ordered), liquid, and gas (least ordered)

4  
 The  States  of  MaCer  
•  Solids  
–  have  a  rigid  shape  and  fixed  volume.  The  external  
shape  can  reflect  the  atomic  and  molecular  
arrangement.  

•  Liquids  
–  have  volume  but  no  fixed  shape.  Their  shape  is  defined  
by  their  container.      

•  Gases  
–  Volume  is  defined  by  their  container  and  they  expand  
to  fill  their  container.    
–  Their  movement  is  unrestricted  in  their  container.    
5  
Classification of Matter

6  
Classification of Matter

7  
 Classification of Matter

Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions

8  
 Pure  Substances  
•  Elements  –  Substances  made  up  of  only  one  
type  of  atom.    
 -­‐  Cannot  be  separated  by  any  physical  OR  
chemical  process.  

Examples:  
Carbon  
Helium  
Gold  
 Pure  Substances  
•  Compound  –  Two  or  more  elements  chemically  
bonded  together.  
   
Examples:  
Carbon  Dioxide  (CO2)  
Water  (H2O)  
Salt  (NaCl)  
Sucrose  (C12H22O11)  
 Mixtures  
•  Mixture  –  Two  or  more  pure  substances  mixed  
together.    Each  substance  in  the  mixture  retains  
its  own  set  of  chemical  and  physical  properSes.  

Example:  Copper  and  Zinc  

can  be  mixed  together  to    
produce  brass.  
Even  though  it  may  look  
different,  it  is  sSll  copper    
and  zinc  

Homogenous  Mixture    
Heterogeneous  

Homogenous  

12  
 Terminology

A  pure  substance  is  made  up  of  only  one  component.    

The  components  of  a  pure  substance  can  be  individual  atoms  or  
group  of  atoms  joined  together  in  a  fixed,  defined  proporSon.  
Atom  is  the  smallest  idenSfiable  unit  of  an  element.    
Compounds  are  formed  when  chemical  elements  combine  
with  other  elements  in  specific  and  constant  paPerns  
A  mixture  is  a  combinaSon  of  two  or  more  substances  in  
which  each  substance  retains  its  disSnct  idenSty.    
Homogeneous  mixture  -­‐    the  composiSon  of  the  mixture  is  
uniform  throughout.  
Heterogeneous  mixture  -­‐  the  composiSon  is  not  uniform.  
13  
Chemical  Elements  and  the  Periodic  Table    

14  
 What  are  the  rules  for  a  valid  element  name?  
 
Many  symbols  of  the  elements  begin  with  either  the  first  lePer  
(H  =  hydrogen),  the  first  two  lePers  (He  =  helium),  or  the  first  
and  third  lePer  (Mg  =  magnesium)  of  the  element’s  name  in  
English.  
 
 

•  Only  the  first  lePer  in  an  element’s  symbol  is  capitalized  

A  symbol  for  an  element  always  contains  a  single  uppercase  

lePer.  
 

15  
Origins  of  the  Names  and  Symbols  of  the  Elements  

•  Most  chemical  symbols  are  based  on  the  English  name  

of  the  element.    
•  Some  symbols  are  based  on  LaSn  names.  
•  The  symbol  for  potassium  is  K,  from  the  LaSn  kalium,  
and  the  symbol  for  sodium  is  Na,  from  the  LaSn  
natrium.  
•  AddiSonal  elements  with  symbols  based  on  their  
Greek  or  LaSn  names  include  the  following:  
 
lead      Pb      plumbum    
mercury    Hg      hydrargyrum    
iron      Fe      ferrum    
silver      Ag      argentum    
Sn        Sn      stannum    
copper      Cu      cuprum  
16  
 Origins  of  the  Names  of  the  Elements  
 
Early  scienSsts  gave  newly  discovered  elements  names  that  
reflected  their  properSes:  
Ø Bromine  originates  from  the  Greek  word  bromos,  meaning  
“stench.”      

Other  elements  were  named  ajer  countries:  

•  Polonium  ajer  Poland    
•  Francium  ajer  France  
•  Americium  ajer  the  United  States  of  America.  
 
   

17  
 Origin  of  the  Names  of  the  Elements  
Copernicium  is  a  chemical  element  
Curium  is  named  ajer  Marie  Curie,   with  symbol  Cn  named  ajer  the  
a  chemist  who  helped  discover   astronomer  Nicolaus  Copernicus  
radioacSvity  and  also  discovered   who  formulated  a  model  of  the  
two  new  elements.  Curie  won  two   universe  that  placed  the  Sun  rather  
Nobel  Prizes  for  her  work.   than  the  Earth  at  the  center  of  the  
universe.  
 
 
 
Memorize them

19  
20  
Sugar’s  ProperEes  Differ  from  Those  of  the  Elements  
C,  H,  and  O  in  Sugar  

•  Ordinary  table  sugar  is  a  

compound  called  
sucrose.    
•  A  sucrose  molecule,  
such  as  the  one  shown  
here,  contains  carbon,  
hydrogen,  and  oxygen  
atoms.    
•  The  properSes  of  
sucrose  are  very  
different  from  those  of  
carbon,  shown  here  in  
the  form  of  graphite,  
and  hydrogen  and  
oxygen.    
21  
Salt’s  ProperEes  Differ  from  Those  of  the  Elements  
Na  and  Cl  in  Salt  
•  Elemental sodium Sodium is •  Elemental chlorine Chlorine is a
an extremely reactive metal that yellow gas with a pungent odor. It
dulls almost instantly upon is highly reactive and poisonous.
exposure to air.

22  
Salt’s  ProperEes  Differ  from  Those  of  the  Elements  
Na  and  Cl  in  Salt  

•  Sodium  chloride    The  compound  formed  by  sodium  

and  chlorine  is  table  salt.    
•  The  properSes  of  a  compound  are,  in  general,  
different  from  the  properSes  of  the  elements  that  
compose  it.  
23  
 H2O  
H2O  is  the  chemical  formula  for  water;  it  indicates  that  water  
consists  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  atoms  in  a  2:1  raSo.    

A  chemical  formula  indicates  the  elements  present  in  a  

compound  and  the  relaSve  number  of  atoms  of  each.    
24  
 Changing  a  Subscript  Makes  a  Totally  Different  
Compound  

•  The  subscripts  in  a  chemical  formula  are  part  of  the  compound’s  
definiSon—if  they  change,  the  formula  no  longer  specifies  the  
same  compound.    
•  CO  is  the  chemical  formula  for  carbon  monoxide,  an  air  pollutant  
with  adverse  health  effects  on  humans.    
•  If  you  change  the  subscript  of  the  O  in  CO  from  1  to  2,  you  get  the  
formula  for  a  totally  different  compound.    
•  CO2  is  the  chemical  formula  for  carbon  dioxide,  the  relaSvely  
harmless  product  of  combusSon  and  human  respiraSon.  We  
breathe  small  amounts  of  it  all  the  Sme  with  no  harmful  effects.  

25  
 Exercise    
1.  How  many  different  symbols  are  there  in  each  of  the  following  
formulas?    
(a)  HBr    
(b)  (NH4)2Cr2O7    
(c)  OsO4    
(d)  Es2O3    
(e)  SI4    
(f)  Ir(NO3)3    
 
2.  For  each  of  the  above  molecular  formulas,  count  the  number  of  
atoms  of  each  element  

3.  Classify  the  following  formulas  as  compounds  or  elements.  (a)  

CO  (b)  Co  (c)  Mn  (d)  MnO    
26  
 Subatomic  ParEcles:  Protons,  
Neutrons,  and  electrons  in  Atoms  

Modern  Atomic  Theory  

 Atomic  Theory  of  Democritus:  What  Cannot  Be  Divided    
•  Democritus  (460–370  B.C.E.)  
and  his  mentor  Leucippus  
(fijh  century  B.C.E.)  recorded  
ideas  of  atoms.    
•  Democritus  suggested  that  if  
you  divide  maPer  into  smaller  
and  smaller  pieces,  you  end  up  
with  Sny,  indestrucSble  
parScles.  
•  Democritus  called  them  
atomos,  or  “atoms,”  meaning  
“indivisible.”  
•  Democritus  is  the  first  person  
on  record  to  have  postulated  
that  maCer  is  composed  of  
atoms.    
•  A  picture  of  Democritus  with  
Diogenes,  as  imagined  by  a  
medieval  arSst  
28  
Atomic  Theory  of  MaCer  
In  1808—over  2000  
years  later—John  Dalton  
formalized  a  theory  of  
atoms  that  gained  broad  
acceptance.    

29  
 Discovery  of  the  Atom’s  Electron  
•  Thomson’s  charge  to  mass  experiment  invesSgated  the  effect  on  a  cathode  
ray  when  placing  an  electric  field  around  a  tube.  

 
 
Thomson’s  findings:  
•  Cathode  rays  are  made  of  Sny  parScles.  
–  These  parScles  had  a  negaSve  charge  because  the  beam  always  
deflected  toward  the  (+)  plate.  

30  
 Thomson’s  Discovery  of  Electrons  Shows  Atoms  Have  Parts  

•  An  English  physicist  named  J.  J.  

Thomson  (1856–1940)  discovered  
a  smaller  and  more  fundamental  
parScle  called  the  electron.    
Thomson  discovered  the  following:  
•  Electrons  are  negaSvely  charged.  
•  Electrons  are  much  smaller  and  
lighter  than  atoms.  
•  Electrons  are  uniformly  present  in  
many  different  kinds  of   Plum pudding model of the atom:
In the model suggested by J. J. Thomson,
substances.   negatively charged electrons (yellow) were
•  He  proposed  that  atoms  must   held in a sphere of positive charge (red).
contain  posiSve  charge  that  
balances  the  negaSve  charge  of  
electrons.    
31  
 Rutherford’s  Experiment  Requires  a  New  Model  
Rutherford’s  gold  foil  experiment  (1909):  Tiny  parScles  called  alpha-­‐parScles  
were  directed  at  a  thin  sheet  of  gold  foil.  

Most of the particles

passed directly
through the foil. A
few, however, were
deflected—some of
them at sharp
angles.

32  
 RadioacEvity  
•  Three  types  of  radiaSon  were  discovered  by  
Ernest  Rutherford:  
–  α  parScles  (posiSvely  charged)  
–  β  parScles  (negaSvely  charged,  like  electrons)  
–  γ  rays  (uncharged)  

33  
Statement  by  Rutherford  of  the  Nuclear  Theory  of  the  Atom  

1.          Most  of  the  atom’s  mass  and  all  of  its  posiSve  charge  are  contained  in  a  small  core  
 called  the  nucleus.  
2.  Most  of  the  volume  of  the  atom  is  empty  space  through  which  the  Sny,  negaSvely  
 charged  electrons  are  dispersed.  
3.  The  number  of  negaSvely  charged  electrons  outside  the  nucleus  is  equal  to  the  
 number  of  posiSvely  charged  parScles  (protons)  inside  the  nucleus,  so  that  the  atom  is  
 electrically  neutral.     34  
The Structure of an Atom

In 1932, James Chadwick discovered that the

nucleus of the atom also contained neutral particles
called neutrons.

In an atom, the protons and neutrons that make up almost all the mass of the atom are packed into the tiny
volume of the nucleus. The rapidly moving electrons (negative charge) surround the nucleus and account for
the large volume of the atom.
35  
 Bohr  Atomic  Model  
In  1913  Bohr  proposed  his  quanSzed  shell  model  of  the  atom  to  explain  
how  electrons  can  have  stable  orbits  around  the  nucleus  

36  
Atomic  Theory    

37  
RelaEve  Size  of  the  nucleus  and  the  atom  

If  the  nucleus  had  the  size  of  a  

baseball,  an  atom  would  have  
the  size  of  baseball  stadium  

RelaEve  Size  of  the  Proton  and  the  Electron  

If  a  proton  had  the  mass  of  a  

baseball,  an  electron  would  have  
the  mass  of  a  rice  grain.    
The  proton  is  nearly  2000  Smes  as  
massive  as  an  electron.  
38  
The  ProperEes  of  Protons,  Neutrons,  and  Electrons    

39  
 How  Atoms  of  the  Elements  Differ  from  One  Another  
•  Elements  are  defined  by  their  numbers  of  protons.  
•  It  is  the  number  of  protons  in  the  nucleus  of  an  atom  that  idenSfies  the  
atom  as  a  parScular  element.  
•  If  an  atom  had  a  different  number  of  protons,  it  would  be  a  different  
element.    
•  The  number  of  protons  in  the  nucleus  of  an  atom  is  its  atomic  number  
and  is  given  the  symbol  Z.      

40  
 Table  of  Elements  by  Atomic  Number  
The  periodic  table  of  the  elements  lists  all  known  
elements  according  to  their  atomic  numbers.    

41  
 Atomic  symbols  of  elements    
13 Atomic  number,  Z  
Al Atom  symbol  
27 Mass  number,  A  

1.  The  number  of  protons  =  atomic  number    

2.  The  sum  of  the  number  of  protons  and  neutrons  contained  in  the  nucleus  of  an            

atom  is  a  very  useful  number  called  the  mass  number  

3.  The  number  of  neutrons  =  mass  number  −  atomic  number.    

4.  The  number  of  protons  =  number  of  electrons  (for  a  neutral  atom)  

42  
 Symbols  of  Elements  

Ø  Elements  are  represented  by  a  one  or  two  lePer  symbol.    This  is  
the  symbol  for  carbon.  
Ø  All  atoms  of  the  same  element  have  the  same  number  of  
protons,  which  is  called  the  atomic  number,  Z.  It  is  wriPen  as  a  
subscript  BEFORE  the  symbol.  
Ø  The  mass  number  is  the  total  number  of  protons  and  neutrons  in  
the  nucleus  of  an  atom.  It  is  wriPen  as  a  superscript  BEFORE  the  
symbol.  
43  
 Atomic  symbols  of  elements    

 
Example  1:  Consider  the  symbol  of  a  neutral  atom  of  krypton:    
 
 
(a)  How  many  protons  does  this  atom  contain?      36  (#p  =  Atomic  #)      
(b)  How  many  neutrons  does  this  atom  contain?    50  (mass#  -­‐  atomic#)  
(c)  How  many  electrons  does  this  atom  contain?   36  (#p  =  #e)  
(d)  Suppose  that  you  add  three  protons  to  this  atom.  
  What  is  the  atomic  
symbol  for  this  new  atom?    Y   44  
 How  many  protons,  electrons,  and  neutrons  are  in  
the  following  atoms?  

Protons      Electrons    Neutrons  

1.         32  
                 S  
                     16  
 
 
2.  65  
                         Cu  
 29  
 
 
3.  U-­‐240  

45  
 How  many  protons,  electrons,  and  neutrons  are  in  
the  following  atoms?  
                               Protons                            Electrons      Neutrons  

1.  32  
           S      16                          16                              16  
 16  
 

2.  65  
           Cu      29        29        36  
29                  
 

3.  U  –  240        92        92        148  

.  
46  
 Problem:  
Complete  the  following  table:  

Atomic   Mass   Atomic  

Protons   Neutrons   Electrons   Number   Number   Symbol  

6   7  

42   96  

55   133  

47  
 Answer:    

Atomic   Mass   Atomic  

Protons   Neutrons   Electrons   Number   Number   Symbol  

6   7   6   6   13  

42   54   42   42   96  

13   14   13   13   27  

55   78   55   55   133  

48  
 Atomic  symbols  of  elements    

1.  The  number  of  protons  =  atomic  number    

2.  The  sum  of  the  number  of  protons  and  neutrons  contained  in  the  
nucleus  of  an  atom  is  a  very  useful  number  called  the  mass  number  
3.  number  of  neutrons  =  mass  number  −  atomic  number.    
4.  number  of  protons  =  number  of  electrons  (for  a  neutral  atom)  
 
5.  Ion  charge  =  #p+  –  #e–  
 

49  
Charge:    
 
•  Protons  and  electrons  both  have  electrical  charge.    
•  The  charge  of  the  proton  is  1+  and  the  charge  of  the  
electron  is  1-.    
•  The  neutron  has  no  charge.    
•  When  protons  and  electrons  combine  in  atoms,  their  
charges  cancel.  

50  
 Ions  and  the  Periodic  Table  
IONS      
CaSons  (+)   Anions  (-­‐)  
•  A  caEon  forms  when  an  atom  loses   •  An  anion  forms  when  an  atom  gains  
one  or  more  electrons  from  its  outer   one  or  more  electrons  into  its  outer  
(valence)  shell  (energy  level).   (valence)  shell  (energy  level).  

•  CaSons  are  posiSvely  charged   •  Anions  are  negaSvely  charged  

because  the  atom  has  more  protons   because  the  atom  has  less  protons  
(+)  than  electrons  (–).   (+)  than  electrons  (–).  
–  Mg  atom  has  12  protons  and  12   –  F  atom  has  9  protons  and  
electrons.   9  electrons.  
–  Mg+2  ion  has  12  protons  and  10   –  F–  ion  has  9  protons  and  10  
electrons.     electrons.  
–  Mg  à  Mg2+  +  2  e–      F    +    e–    à    F–  

•  Metal  elements  tend  to  form  caSons.   •  Nonmetal  elements  tend  to  form  
anions.  
51  
 Positive Ions: Loss of Electrons
A sodium atom (Na) will lose its one valence electron to
form a sodium ion (Na+).
Sodium  atom   Sodium  ion    
 Na              Na+  

Positively charged ions of metals are called cations.

52  
 Negative Ions: Gain of Electrons
An atom of chlorine gains one electron to become a
chloride ion (Cl−) with a charge of 1−.

Negatively charged ions of nonmetals are called anions.

53  
Determining the Number of Protons and Electrons in an Ion

Determine the number of protons and electrons in the Ca2+ ion.

SOLUTION
The periodic table indicates that the atomic
number for calcium is 20, so calcium has 20 Ion  charge  =  #p+  –  #e–  
protons. 2+  =  20  –  #e–  
#e–  =  20  –  2  =  18  
You can find the number of The  number  of  electrons  is  18.  
electrons using the ion charge equation. The  Ca2+  ion  has  20  protons  and  
Ion charge = #p+ – #e– 18  electrons.  

Determining the Number of Protons and Electrons in an Ion

Determine the number of protons and electrons in the S2– ion.

Answer:  16 protons, 18 electrons

54  
 Determining Ion Charge from Numbers of Protons and Electrons

Determine the charge of each ion.

(a)  a magnesium ion with 10 electrons (Magnesium’s  atomic  number  is  12)
(b) a sulfur ion with 18 electrons (Sulfur’s atomic number is 16)
(c) an iron ion with 23 electrons (Iron’s atomic number is 26)

SOLUTION
 
To  determine  the  charge  of  each  ion,  use  the  ion  charge  equaSon.  
 
Ion  charge  =  #p+  –  #e–  
 
You  are  given  the  number  of  electrons  in  the  problem.  You  can  obtain  the  number  of  
protons  from  the  element’s  atomic  number  in  the  periodic  table.  
 
(a)    Ion  charge  =  12  –  10  =  2  +  (Mg2+)  
 
(b)  Ion  charge  =  16  –  18  =  2  –  (S2–)  

(c)  Ion  charge  =  26  –  23  =  3  +  (Fe3+)  

  55  
 
 Ions  and  the  Periodic  Table  
Ions  with  charge  predicted  by  the  group  number:  

The  key  to  predicSng  the  charge  acquired  by  an  element  is  its  posiSon  in  the  periodic  
table  relaSve  to  the  noble  gases.  

56  
 Matter has properties


Two  basic  types  of  properEes  that  we  can  associate  with  
maCer:  
 
•   Physical  properEes  
 
 
•   Chemical  properEes  

57  
 Physical  Changes  and  ProperEes  of  MaCer  

Physical Properties
Characteristic of a substance that can be
observed (using your senses) without
changing the substance into something else.
Physical properties are used to identify
describe and classify matter.

Hardness Texture Size Color

Odor Taste Shape Temperature

58  
 More EXAMPLES - Physical

•  freezing point,
•  boiling point,
•  melting point,
•  magnetism,
•  density,
•  viscosity,
- Viscosity - the resistance of a liquid to flowing
•  luster and many more.

59  
 Physical Changes  
– alter  only  state  or  
appearance  but  not  the  
idenSty  of  the  substance.  
Some  physical  changes  would  be  
•  boiling  of  a  liquid  
•  melSng  of  a  solid  
•  dissolving  a  solid  in  a  liquid  to  
give  a  homogeneous  mixture  —  
a  SOLUTION.  
 
 
Could  be  a  change  in:  Mass,  Volume,  Change  in  state,  Color,  Shape…    
Substance  may  seem  different,  but  the  way  the  atoms  link  up  is  the  same.  
60  
 The  Science  of  Change  
–  Phase  changes  
•  Convert  a  substance  from  one  state  to  another  without  changing  
the  idenSty  of  the  substance.  
•  Example  

61  
The  Science  of  Change  

62  
 Terminology
•  The  temperature  at  which  a  solid  melts  is  called  its  melEng  temperature  (“melSng  point”).    
           The  melSng  temperature  of  a  substance  is  the  same  as  its  freezing  temperature  
           (“freezing  point”),  and  thus  marks  the  boundary  between  its  solid  and  liquid  phases.    

•  The  boiling  point  of  a  substance  is  the  temperature  at  which  the  vapor  pressure  of  the  liquid  equals  
the  pressure  surrounding  the  liquid  and  the  liquid  changes  into  a  vapor  (gas)  

•  The  normal  boiling  point  (also  called  the  atmospheric  boiling  point  or  the  atmospheric  pressure  
boiling  point)  of  a  liquid  is  the  special  case  in  which  the  vapor  pressure  of  the  liquid  equals  the  
defined  atmospheric  pressure  at  sea  level,  1  atmosphere  =  1atm.  

63  
 Chemical Properties

•  Chemical properties are characteristics

involved when a substance interacts
with another substance to change its
chemical make-up.

Flammability Rusting Creating gas

bubbles
Creating a Reactivity with pH
new chemical water
product
 Chemical Change

• Burning hydrogen (H2) in

oxygen (O2) gives H2O.
•  Making new compound

•  Chemical change or
chemical reaction —
transformation of one or
more atoms or molecules
into one or more different
molecules.
65  
 Evidence of a Chemical Reaction

• A color change
• The formation of a solid in a
previously clear (unclouded)
solution
• The formation of a gas when you
add a substance to a solution
• The emission of light
• The emission or absorption
of heat

66  
 Look for terms such as . . .

•  Burn  
•  Rust  
•  Decompose  
•  Digest  
•  Rot  
•  Ferment  
•  Corrode  
•  Precipitate  
•  Explode  
•  Grow  
•  Oxidize  
67  
 List  of  separaSon  techniques  

•  AdsorpSon,     •  ExtracSon,    
•  Capillary   •  Dialysis,  
electrophoresis,     •  FracSonal  disSllaSon,  
•  CentrifugaSon,     •  FracSonal  freezing,    
•  Chromatography,     •  MagneSc  separaSon,    
•  CrystallizaSon,     •  PrecipitaSon,    
•  DisSllaSon,     •  RecrystallizaSon,  
•  Electrophoresis,     •  SublimaSon,  
•  ElectrostaSc  separaSon,     •  SedimentaSon,  
•  FiltraSon,   •  Osmosis  
•  EvaporaSon,   •  SonicaSon   68  
 Methods  of  SeparaEng  Mixtures  
How  to  separate  the  sand-­‐iron  mixture?    

Physical  processes  that  can  be  used  to  separate  mixtures    

69  
 Methods  of  SeparaEng  Mixtures  

How  could  we  separate  the  copper  and  zinc  back  out?  
•  Mixture  –  Two  or  more  pure  substances  mixed  
together.    Each  substance  in  the  mixture  retains  
its  own  set  of  chemical  and  physical  properSes.  
Even  though  it  brass,  each  metal  
retains  its  own  properSes  like  melSng  
point.  
 
Copper  melts  at  1,083°  C,  while  zinc  
melts  at  419°  C.    

Which  element  will  melt  first?  

What  is  the  physical  state  of  copper  at  750°C? 70  

 Gel  electrophoresis  
is  a  laboratory  method  used  to    
separate  mixtures  of  DNA,  RNA,  or    
proteins  according  to  molecular  size.    

71  
72  
 Chemical  SeparaEon  

Water  can  be  separated  

Compounds  
• into   have  
Hydrogen  and   only  1  set  of  properSes.    They  
Oxygen  
by  cannot   be  
a  process   separated  by  any  physical  process.  
called  
Electrolysis .   be  separated  by  a  chemical  reacSon.  
 -­‐  Can  only  
When  mercury(II)  oxide  is  
heated,  it  decomposes  or  
breaks  down  into     Oxygen  
Mercury  
two  simpler  substances.    

73  
 DescripEon         Physical  change?   Chemical  change?    
   
Solid  iodine  changes  to  
gaseous  iodine    
     
Solid  silver  chloride  is  
formed    
when  two  clear  liquids  are  
mixed    
 
Candle  wax  burns    
 
Soj  metals  can  be  
hammered  into  sheets    
Liquid  ether  evaporates  at  
room  temperature  
 
Forming  of  frost  on  a  cold  
night   74  
 DescripEon         Physical  change?   Chemical  change?    
   
Solid  iodine  changes  to  
gaseous  iodine        X    
               
     
Solid  silver  chloride  is    
formed      

   x  
when  two  clear  liquids  are  
mixed                      
 
Candle  wax  burns    
   X  
                         

Soj  metals  can  be  

hammered  into  sheets                    X  
Liquid  ether  evaporates  at  
room  temperature                  X  
 
Forming  of  frost  on  a  cold  
night                  X  
75  
 Determining  whether  a  property  is  physical  or  chemical    

(a)  Nitrogen  is  a  colorless,  odorless  gas  at  room  temperature.    

Physical  
 
(b)  Nitrogen  gas  can  be  converted  to  liquid  nitrogen  by  lowering      its  
temperature  and  increasing  its  external  pressure.    
Physical  
 
(c)  Nitrogen  gas  does  not  burn  in  air.  
 Chemical  
 
(d)  In  the  Haber  process,  nitrogen  gas  reacts  with  hydrogen  gas  to  form  
ammonia  gas.    
Chemical  

76  
 The  Periodic  Table:  Historic  PerspecEve  

In 1872, Dmitri Mendeleev

•  Developed the modern periodic table
•  arranged elements by increasing atomic mass
•  arranged elements into groups with similar
properties

77  
 Periodic  Table  
 

•  Periodic  law    

–  When  the  elements  are  

arranged  in  order  of  
increasing  atomic  mass,  
certain  sets  of  properEes  
recur  periodically.  

–  Elements  having  similar  

physical  and  chemical  
properSes  fall  within  a   The  color  of  each  element  represents  its  
column.   properSes.    
 
78  
Periods and Groups

•  Groups are vertical columns

•  Periods are horizontal rows of elements
79  
Group Numbers

Group Numbers, written at the top of each

vertical column, are written two ways:
•  The letter A is used for the representative
elements 1A to 8A and the letter B for the
transition elements.
•  The numbers 1–18 are used for the columns
from left to right.

80  
Chemical  Elements  and  the  Periodic  Table    

81  
 Areas  of  the  Periodic  Table  
•  Major  Areas  
–  Metals  
• RepresentaSve  elements  (Main  group  metals  )  
• TransiSon  metals  
• Inner  transiSon  metals  
–  Lanthanides  
–  AcSnides  

–  Metalloids  

–  Non  metals  
82  
 Regions  in  the  periodic  table    

Lanthanides  
AcSnides  

83  
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

The heavy zigzag line on the periodic table

separates the metals from nonmetals.
Metalloids border the zigzag line.
84  
Metals

Most metals are shiny solids, such as copper

(Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag).
Metals are
•  ductile, can be shaped into wires
•  malleable, can be hammered into a flat sheet
•  good conductors of electricity
•  melted at much higher temperatures than
nonmetals
•  solids at room temperature, except for
mercury (Hg)

85  
Metalloids

Except for aluminum (Al), the elements along

the zigzag line are metalloids. Metalloids
•  include B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, and At
•  exhibit some properties typical of metals and
some typical of nonmetals
•  are better conductors of heat and electricity
than nonmetals, but not as good as metals
•  are semiconductors because they can be
modified to function as conductors or
insulators
86  
Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids

Nonmetals include elements such as hydrogen (H),

carbon (C), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), chlorine (Cl),
and sulfur (S).
Nonmetals
•  not especially shiny, malleable, or ductile, and
are often poor conductors
of heat and electricity
•  typically have low melting
points and low densities

87  
1. Classify each element as a metal, nonmetal, or metalloid.
(a) Ba (b) I (c) O (d) Te
 

88  
 Families:  Grouping  of  the  Periodic  Table  

•  Elements  within  a  column  are  considered  “families.”  

–  They  have  similar  chemical  and  physical  properSes.    
 
•  Families  of  the  periodic  table  
–  Alkali  metals  (column  1/Group  number  1A)  
–  Alkaline  earth  metals  (column  2/Group  number  2A)  
–  Chalcogens  (column  16/Group  number  6A)  
–  Halogens  (column  17/Group  number  7A)  
–  Noble/inert  gases  (column  18/Group  number  8A)  

89  
90  
 Periodic  table  of  the  elements  by  the  group  name    
According  to  the  periodic  law,  the  properSes  of  elements  in  a  group  have  significant  
similariSes.  This  is  why  some  of  the  groups  have  their  own  names  

Chalcogens  

91  
 Looking  for  PaCerns:  Alkali  Metals  

•  The  alkali  metals  include  

lithium,  sodium,  
potassium,  rubidium,  and  
cesium,  
•  Incredibly  reacSve,  
•  Very  silvery  and  soj,  
•  Combine  rapidly  with  
oxygen,  chlorine,  and  
hydrogen.  

92  
 Looking  for  PaCerns:  Alkaline  Earth  Metals  

•  The  alkaline  earth  metals  

include  beryllium,  
magnesium,  calcium,  
stronSum,  and  barium,  
•  Very  reacSve,  
•  Shiny  and  silvery-­‐white,  
•  Combine  rapidly  with  
oxygen  and  halogens  

93  
 Looking  for  PaCerns:  Halogens  

•  The  halogens  include  

fluorine,  chlorine  
bromine,  iodine,  and  
astaSne.  
•  Highly  reacSve,  
especially  with  alkali  
metals  and  alkaline  
earth  metals  

94  
 Looking  for  PaCerns:  Noble  Gases  

•  The  noble  gases  

include  helium  (used  
in  balloons),  neon  
(used  in  neon  signs),  
argon,  krypton,  and  
xenon.  
 

•  They  are  all  

odorless,  colorless,  
gases  with  very  low      
chemical  reacSvity  

95  
96  
 Under  standard  condiEons,  they  are  all  odorless,  colorless,  monatomic  gases  
8   Noble  gases    with  very  low  chemical  reacEvity  

97  
 GROUPS AND FAMILIES OF ELEMENTS

2. To which group or family of elements does each element belong?

(a) Mg (b) N (c) K (d) Br

98  
 GROUPS AND FAMILIES OF ELEMENTS

1. To which group or family of elements does each element belong?

(a) Mg (b) N (c) K (d) Br

SOLUTION

(a)  Mg  is  in  Group  2A;  it  is  an  alkaline  earth  metal.  
(b)  N  is  in  Group  5A.  
(c)  K  is  in  Group  1A;  it  is  an  alkali  metal.  
(d)  Br  is  in  Group  7A;  it  is  a  halogen.  

2. To which group or family of elements does each element belong?

(a) Li (b) B (c) I (d) Ar

 
Answers:    (a) alkali metal, Group 1A (b) Group 3A (c) halogen, Group 7A (d) noble gas,
Group 8A

99  
 Isotopes:  When  the  Number  of  Neutrons  Varies  

•  All  atoms  of  a  given  element  have  the  same  

number  of  protons.  

•  They  do  not  necessarily  have  the  same  

number  of  neutrons.    
•  Atoms  with  the  same  number  of  protons  but  
different  numbers  of  neutrons  are  called  
isotopes.  
•  All  elements  have  their  own  unique  percent  
natural  abundance  of  isotopes.      
100  
Atomic Mass

The atomic mass of an element is

•  calculated based on the weighted average of all

naturally occurring isotopes

•  not the same as the mass number

Atomic number
11
Na
Atomic Mass
22.99 101  
Isotopes and Atomic Mass

Most elements have two or more isotopes that

contribute to the atomic mass of that element.

102  
Isotopes:  Natural  Abundance  of  Isotopes  in  Neon  

Isotopes  of  neon    

Naturally  occurring  neon  contains  three  different  isotopes:  Ne-­‐20  (with  10  protons  
and  10  neutrons),  Ne-­‐21  (with  10  protons  and  11  neutrons),  and  Ne-­‐22  (with  10  
protons  and  12  neutrons).    

103  
Isotope  Symbol  NotaEon  

Isotopes  are  ojen  symbolized  in  the  following  way:  

For example, the symbols for the isotopes of

neon are as follows:

104  
Isotopes:  Isotope  Symbols  

•  A  second  notaSon  for  isotopes  is  the  chemical  symbol  (or  chemical  
name)  followed  by  a  hyphen  and  the  mass  number  of  the  isotope.    

In this notation, the neon isotopes are

as follows:
Ne-20 neon-20
Ne-21 neon-21
Ne-22 neon-22
105  
ATOMIC NUMBERS, MASS NUMBERS, AND ISOTOPE SYMBOLS

1. What are the atomic number (Z), mass number (A), and symbols of the carbon isotope
that has 7 neutrons?

SOLUTION

You can determine that the atomic number (Z) of carbon is 6 (from the periodic table).
This means that carbon atoms have 6 protons. The mass number (A) for the isotope with 7
neutrons is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons.

A = 6 + 7 = 13

So, Z = 6, A = 13, and the symbols for the isotope are C-13 and

2. What are the atomic number, mass number, and symbols for the chlorine isotope with 18
neutrons?

Answer:  Z  =  17,  A  =  35,  Cl-­‐35,  and                

.
106  
NUMBERS  OF  PROTONS  AND  NEUTRONS  FROM ISOTOPE SYMBOLS
1. How many protons, electrons and neutrons are in the chromium isotope

The number of protons is equal to Z (lower left number).

The number of neutrons is equal to A (upper left number) –  Z (lower left number).

SOLUTION
#p+ = Z = 24

#n  =  A  –  Z  
=  52  –  24  
=  28  

107  
Learning Check

1. Which of the following pairs are isotopes of

the same element?
2. In which of the following pairs do both atoms
have 8 neutrons?
A. 15 X and 15 X
8 7

12 14
B. 6 X and X
6

15 16
C. 7 X and X
8

108  
Solution

1. Which of the following pairs are isotopes of

the same element?
12 14
B. 6 X and 6 X

Each has 6 protons and, the element is carbon.

Different mass numbers indicate that each
species has a different number of neutrons.
These are isotopes.

109  
Solution

2. In which of the following pairs do both atoms have

8 neutrons?
C.
15 16
7 X and X 8
The number of neutrons is calculated.
15
7 X mass number – atomic number = number neutrons
15 (mass number) – 7 (atomic number)
= 8 neutrons
mass number – atomic number = number neutrons
16
8 X 16 (mass number) – 8 (atomic number)
= 8 neutrons

110  
 Isotopes  and  Average  Atomic  Mass  
 
The calculation for the atomic mass requires the
•  Percent (%) abundance of each isotope
•  Atomic mass of each isotope of that element

–  Example  problem    
•  Boron  has  two  isotopes.    
–  Boron  is  19.9%  10B  and  80.1%  11B.      
 
•  Boron  atomic  weight    
=  0.199  (10.0  amu)  +  0.801  (11.0  amu)  =  10.8  amu      

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 Calculate  Atomic  Mass  as  the  Weighted  Average  

In  general,  atomic  mass  is  calculated  according  to  

the  following  equaSon:  
 
Atomic  mass  =    
 (FracEon  of  isotope  1  ×  Mass  of  isotope  1)  +  
   (FracEon  of  isotope  2  ×  Mass  of  isotope  2)  +  
   (FracEon  of  isotope  3  ×  Mass  of  isotope  3)  +  …  
 
 where  the  fracSons  of  each  isotope  are  the  
percent  natural  abundances  converted  to  their  
decimal  values.    

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Example  Problem:  CalculaEng  Atomic  Mass  of  Gallium    

Gallium  is  an  element  found  in  lasers  used  in  

compact  disc  players.    
Gallium  has  two  naturally  occurring  isotopes:  
Ga-­‐69,  with  mass  68.9256  amu  and  a  natural  
abundance  of  60.11%,  and  Ga-­‐71,  with  mass  
70.9247  amu  and  a  natural  abundance  of  
39.89%.    
Calculate  the  atomic  mass  of  gallium.  

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 Example  SoluEon:  CalculaEng  Atomic  Mass  of  Gallium  

•  Convert  the  percent  natural  abundances  into  decimal  

form  by  dividing  by  100.  
SoluEon:  
•  FracSon  Ga-­‐69  =  60.11  =  0.6011  
                                                             100  
•  FracSon  Ga-­‐71  =  39.89  =  0.3989  
                                                             100  

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 Example  SoluEon:  CalculaEng  Atomic  Mass  of  Gallium  

•  Use  the  fracSonal  abundances  and  the  atomic  masses  

of  the  isotopes  to  compute  the  atomic  mass  according  
to  the  atomic  mass  definiSon  given  earlier.    

Atomic mass = (0.6011 × 68.9256 amu) + (0.3989 × 70.9247 amu)

= 41.4321 amu + 28.2919 amu
= 69.7231 amu
= 69.72 amu

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 Some  Isotopes  Are  RadioacEve  

•  The  nuclei  of  some  isotopes  of  a  given  element  

are  not  stable.    
•  These  atoms  emit  a  few  energeSc  subatomic  
parScles  from  their  nuclei  and  change  into  
different  isotopes  of  different  elements.    
•  The  emiPed  subatomic  parScles  are  called  
nuclear  radiaEon.  
•  The  isotopes  that  emit    
       them  are  termed    
       radioacEve.    

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 Isotopes  in  the  Environment  

•  Nuclear  radiaSon  can  be  harmful  to  humans  and  

other  living  organisms  because  the  energeSc  
parScles  interact  with  and  damage  biological  
molecules.    
•  Some  isotopes,  such  as  Pb-­‐185,  emit  significant  
amounts  of  radiaSon  only  for  a  very  short  Sme.    
•  Other  isotopes,  such  as  Pu-­‐239,  remain  
radioacSve  for  a  long  Sme—thousands,  millions,  
or  even  billions  of  years.  

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 Beneficial  Uses  of  RadioacEve  Isotopes  
•  RadioacSve  isotopes  are  not  always  harmful.  
•  Many  have  beneficial  uses.    
•  For  example,  techneSum-­‐99  (Tc-­‐99)  is  ojen  given  to  paSents  to  
diagnose  disease.    
•  The  radiaSon  emiPed  by  Tc-­‐99  helps  doctors  image  internal  
organs  or  detect  infecSon.    

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