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What is matter
Diversity of Matter
The molecules around us, that forms us, and its interaction with one
another
Elements
• The simplest form of matter that forms
everything, made out of atoms
• Elements in its molecular form cannot be broken
down or destroyed by any chemical means.
• Its abundant in nature in impure or pure forms,
examples of impure form are compounds.
• Elements can also be obtained by breaking the
bonds of compounds through physical or
chemical ways.
• Elements are represented with symbols that
usually starts with the first letter of their name (H
= Hydrogen).
• Matter is any substance (thing) that has mass
and takes up space, it is made up of atoms,
often organized into larger structures called
molecules.
• The term matter refers to anything that
occupies space and has mass in other words,
the “stuff” that the universe is made of.
• Has 4 types of physical form: solid, liquid,
gas and plasma. All of which is based on
movement of particles in said form.
Elements cont.
• There are 118 elements, but only 92 occur naturally.
The remaining elements have only been made in
laboratories and are unstable.
• The four elements common to all living organisms are
oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen
(N), which together make up about 96% of the human
body.
• Some elements follow the English term for the element,
such as C for carbon and Ca for calcium.
• Other elements’ chemical symbols come from their
Latin names; for example, the symbol for sodium is Na,
which is a short form of natrium, the Latin word for
sodium.

Helium
• It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless and non-
toxic chemical element with the symbol of
“He”.
• Helium is the second lightest and second most
abundant element in the observable universe
(hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant).
• A well-known but minor use is as a lifting gas
in balloons and airships.
• Inhaling a small volume of helium temporarily
changes the timbre and quality of the human
voice.
Gold
• In a pure form, it is a bright, slightly reddish
yellow, dense, soft, and malleable (easily shaped)
metal, its chemical symbol is “Au” (Latin: Aurum,
means gold).
• Gold is a precious metal that has been used for
coinage, jewelry, and other arts throughout
recorded history.
• Gold, along with silver, has been used recently in
the production of electronics because it can
conduct electricity quite well.
• Gold has also been used for medicinal purposes,
such as some gold salts used to treat arthritis due to
its anti-inflammatory properties.
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Mercury
• It is commonly known as quicksilver and was
formerly named hydrargyrum, has the chemical
symbol of “Hg”.
• Mercury is the only metallic element that is
liquid at standard conditions for temperature
and pressure.
• Mercury is used in thermometers, barometers,
mercury switches, mercury relays, fluorescent
lamps and other devices.
• Exposure to mercury through water, gas or
accidentally swallowing mercury can result in
mercury poisoning.
Uranium
• Uranium is a silvery-grey metal and is weakly
radioactive, it occurs naturally in low
concentrations of a few parts per million in soil,
rock and water.
• Most common use of uranium is for its nuclear
properties, such as the generation of electricity in
nuclear power plants.
• Other uses are for weapons of any kind, most well
known of which is the use of uranium as the main
fuel for an atomic bomb.
• Uranium has also been used before to make glow-
in-the-dark products such as uranium glass.

Atoms
• Smallest particles of an element that have the
chemical properties of that element.
• Every form of matter; solid, liquid or gas, is
composed of atoms (both neutral or charged).
• Atoms are extremely small, and is made up of
a nucleus (proton and neutron) and electrons
bound to the nucleus.
• The protons have a positive electric charge,
the electrons have a negative electric charge,
and the neutrons have no electric charge.
Periodic
table pic
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Periodic table
• For classification purposes, elements are grouped in an arrangement
we all know as the periodic table.
• The table display of chemical elements which are arranged by atomic
number and recurring chemical properties.
• Created by a Russian scientist named Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
in 1869 and developed mainly to illustrate periodic trends of the then-
known elements.
• The elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) through 118
(oganesson) have all been discovered or synthesized, completing
seven full rows of the periodic table.
Periodic table cont.
• The periodic table arrangement is also a periodic
trend, which is specific patterns in terms of
chemical properties that are revealed by the
periodic table.
• The periodic table has 7 rows (horizontal) and
18 columns (vertical), the rows are called
periods and the columns are called groups
• The periods are divided into 3 groups: metal,
metallic and non-metal
• The columns are divided into 18 groups with
names such as halogens, noble gas, coinage
metals, etc.

Classification of elements: Period
• Metal: The metals which exhibit the
highest degree of metallic behaviour is
known as metals, have a shiny
appearance.
• Metalloid: Metalloids are such elements,
which possess some of the properties like
metal, while some like non-metal, have a
shiny and dull appearance.
• Non-metal: Non-metals are such
elements which do not possess any
metallic behaviour, have a dull
appearance.
Metalloid element example
• Silicon (Si): hard, brittle crystalline solid with a
blue-grey metallic luster, relatively unreactive,
and is the second most abundant element in the
Earth's crust.
• Silicon is used in industrial construction such as
cement, clay and silica sand. They are also used
in making porcelain and specialty glass.
• Silicon is an essential component for circuit
boards used in all technologies (computers,
laptops, phones, etc.)
• Silicon can be found in microorganisms, such as
diatoms, they can also be found in many plant
tissues in the form of deposits.
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Metal elements example
• Lithium (Li): soft, silvery-white alkali
metal, under standard conditions, it is the
lightest metal and the lightest solid element.
• Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly
reactive and flammable, and must be stored
in mineral oil.
• Lithium is most famously used for the
production of lithium batteries and lithium
ion batteries.
• Lithium is also used medically, as lithium
salts used as a drug for stabilizing mood in
bipolar disorder.
Non-metal element example
• Chlorine (Cl): yellow-green gas at room
temperature, an extremely reactive element,
and is one of the key components of
common salt (NaCl).
• Chlorine in its solid state (elemental
chlorine) is produced for commercial uses,
such as bleaches and disinfectants.
• Chlorine is used as a cleaning agent in
swimming pools and was used in world war
I as a chemical weapon.
• In the form of chloride ions, chlorine is
necessary to all known species of life.

Classification of Elements: Groups
• Is a column of elements in the periodic table of
the chemical elements, and there are 18
numbered groups in the periodic table
• The elements in a group often look and behave
similarly, because they have the same number
of electrons in their outermost layer (shell).
• This is because most chemical properties are
dominated by the location of the outermost
electron.
• Groups may also be identified using their
topmost element, or have a specific name,
example: oxygen group, iron group, etc.
Neon
• Neon is a colorless, odorless, nonreactive
monatomic gas under standard conditions
• Although neon is a very common element in
the universe and solar system, it is rare on
Earth.
• Neon gives a distinct reddish-orange glow
when used in lights, most well known are neon
light signs.
• Since air is the only source where neon is
extracted, it is considerably more expensive
than helium.
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Noble Gas
• Are a group of chemical elements with
similar properties under standard condition,
which is colorless and odorless
• The noble gases are exactly the members of
group 18 and are typically highly unreactive
except when under particular extreme
conditions.
• The nonreactive nature of noble gases
makes them very suitable in applications
where reactions are not wanted.
• Members of the noble gas are helium (He),
neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon
(Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn).
Halogens
• Group in the periodic table consisting of five
chemically related elements: fluorine (F),
chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and
astatine (At).
• The name "halogen" means "salt-producing".
When halogens react with metals, they produce
a wide range of salts.
• The group of halogens is the only periodic
table group that contains elements in three of
the main states of matter at standard
temperature and pressure.

Iodine
• Iodine is the heaviest of the stable halogens, it is
shiny purple-black non-metallic solid at standard
conditions.
• Iodine can be melted into a deep violet liquid and be
boiled into a violet gas, name comes from the Greek
word for "violet-colored".
• It is the least abundant of the stable halogens, being
the sixty-first most abundant element.
• Iodine is the heaviest essential mineral nutrient and is
essential for development of intelligence in humans.
Oxygen
• Oxygen is a member of the chalcogen group in
the periodic table, a highly reactive nonmetal,
and is the most important element for
biological processes.
• After hydrogen and helium, oxygen is the
third-most abundant element in the universe by
mass.
• Oxygen is continuously replenished in Earth's
atmosphere by photosynthesis, which is usually
conducted by plants to make energy
• Oxygen is important component for
combustion and respiration in living organisms.
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Chalcogen
• The chemical elements in group 16 of the
periodic table, also known as the oxygen
family.
• The word "chalcogen" is derived from a
combination of the Greek word khalkόs
(χαλκός) principally meaning copper
• It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur
(S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the
radioactive element polonium (Po).
• All of the solid, stable chalcogens are soft
and do not conduct heat well. Calcogens also
contain 3 metalloids in the group
Alkali Metals
• The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive
metals at standard temperature and pressure
• They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their
softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes
rapidly in air due to oxidation.
• Because of their high reactivity, they must be
stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and
are found naturally only in salts and never as the
free elements.
• The alkali metals consist of the chemical elements
lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K),rubidium
(Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr).

Sodium
• Sodium is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive
metal and an alkali metal, its free element
form does not occur in nature, and must be
extracted from compounds.
• Sodium is the sixth most abundant element in
the Earth's crust and exists in numerous
minerals such as rock salt (NaCl).
• Sodium is an essential element for all animals
and some plants, provides pressure for
osmosis to happen inside living organisms.
• Compounds made of sodium are used for
manufacturing soap and also used as nutrients
for living organisms.
Molecules Bonds
• Atoms form bonds to form molecules and this bond is
formed due to the outermost layer of the electron in the
atom called valence electrons.
• Some of the outermost layers of atoms need more
electrons while others have too much electrons, the
giving away of electrons to the atom that needs the
electrons forms a bond called ionic bond.
• Some outmost electron layers also share electrons
together so they both have enough amount of electrons,
this forms a bond called covalent bond.
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Molecules
• A group of 2 or more atoms that forms the
smallest compound that still retains its chemical
property.
• If a molecule is divided into smaller particles, it
will not have the same chemical properties but
instead are considered different.
• Molecules as components of matter are
common. They also make up most of the oceans
and atmosphere. Most organic substances are
molecules.
• A molecule can be formed from either the same
elements or different elements binding together.
Molecule Cont.
• The bonds in an ionic bond do not form a
molecule and is a weaker bond, meaning the
atoms can be easily separated.
• Covalent bonds is important in biology, because
it is a stronger bond than ionic bond and also
because the bonds can store more energy.
• Organisms can use this to their advantage by
storing energy in chemical bonds. It also means
that the covalent bonds in food must be broken
apart to gain energy.
• This is why our bodies have millions of enzymes
and bacteria that function together to break the
many covalent bonds present in our food and
release the energy.

Examples of Molecules
• Carbon is probably the most important element
for all living organisms and has a unique ability
to form 4 covalent bonds, which can lead to
long chains of molecules.
• All organic molecules contain carbon, and the
ability to manipulate carbon bonds was
probably a very early development in the
evolution of life.
• Carbon could form a hexagonal (6 sides) shape
bond with other carbons to form a strong
material called graphite, used in pencils.
Protein
• One of the most important types of molecule
produced by cells is protein and protein
molecules are a polymer.
• Polymers means that it was formed from many
smaller molecules, known as monomers and
these molecules are called amino acids.
• Cells use protein molecules in a wide variety of
tasks, such as enzymes for making a reaction go
faster.
• Proteins can also form antibodies for immune
system defense, could be used to contract
muscles, and many more functions.
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Biological molecules
• A molecule may have very different properties than
the atoms that make it up. For instance, sugar is a
combination of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.
• Carbon is the element formed after a fire and is a
gray-dusty substance, while hydrogen and oxygen
are both gasses
• But when combined together under a covalent bond,
strings of carbon with oxygen and hydrogen become
a sweet and energy-rich nutrient that many animals
rely on for survival.
• There are 4 types of biological molecules formed by
living organisms: protein, lipid, carbohydrates and
nucleic acid.
Lipid (Fats)
• Lipids are another important class of molecules
and that they don’t mix well with water, this is
called hydrophobic.
• Lipids are also polymers, and are created from
two smaller molecules, glycerol and a fatty
acid.
• These lipid molecules store a lot of energy, and
are often used in fat cells, to store energy for
an organism.
• Lipids are used to dissolve fat soluble vitamins
(vitamin A,D,E and K), and is also used as
cushion for external defense and storing heat.

Carbohydrates (Sugar)
• Carbohydrates are responsible mostly for
energy, most animals process some sort of
sugar to allow their cells to function.
• Individual sugars are known as
monosaccharides while multiple sugars
connected are called polysaccharides.
• Plants often store their sugars as complex
carbohydrates such as starch and sometimes
use these carbohydrate molecules for other
functions, such as structure (cellulose).
• Herbivores can survive on only the glucose
and other carbohydrates present in plant
matter.
Diatomic molecule
• A diatomic atom is composed of only two
atoms, of the same or different chemical
elements. Examples of diatomic molecules
are O2 and CO.
• There are 2 types of Diatomic molecules,
which are Homonuclear and Heteronuclear:
• Homonuclear Diatomic: homonuclear diatomic
molecule consists of two of atoms of the same
element combined.
• Heteronuclear Diatomic: heteronuclear diatomic
molecule consists of two atoms of different
elements chemically combined.
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Nucleic acids
• The most important molecule of life, DNA, is
made from intertwined strings of nucleic acids.
• Nucleic acids are molecules that alone mean
nothing, but when connected in a series hold
information.
• The information stored can be ‘read’ and then
made into strings of protein that eventually
forms into functional protein.
• This process of creating proteins from
information contained in molecules is known
as biosynthesis and is the basis of all life.
Homonuclear Diatomic Molecule
• Nitrogen gas (𝑁 ): is the most common pure
element in the earth, used by plants in roots to
increase growth.
• Hydrogen gas (𝐻 ): colorless, odorless,
tasteless and highly flammable gas, used now
as a possible fuel source (hydrogen fuel cell)
• Oxygen gas (𝑂 ): second most abundant gas
in earth’s atmosphere and is important for
most life on earth and combustion.
• Fluorine gas (𝐹 ): highly toxic, pale yellow
and extremely reactive diatomic gas, and is
usually used in steelmaking.

Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecule
• Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): colorless liquid with a
pungent odor, is classified as a strong acid and is
a component for gastric acid in the stomach of
most animals.
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): colorless and odorless
gas toxic to animals and humans under high
concentration.
• Hydrogen Fluoride (HF): a highly dangerous gas
and can cause blindness if it reaches the eyes
(burning the eyes with acid).
• Nitric Oxide (NO): a colorless gas produced
naturally by lightning in thunderstorm, and is an
important molecule in mammals.
Compounds
• Chemical compounds may be classified according
to several different criteria. One common method
is based on the specific elements present.
• Oxides contain one or more oxygen atoms,
Hydrides contain one or more hydrogen atoms, and
Halides contain one or more halogen (Group 17)
atoms.
• Organic compounds are characterized as those
compounds with a backbone of carbon atoms, and
all the remaining compounds are classified as
inorganic.
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Compounds
• Any substance composed of identical molecules
consisting of atoms of two or more chemical elements.
• All the matter in the universe is composed of the
atoms from different chemical elements, which are
found both in pure form and combined in chemical
compounds.
• The atoms of different elements can combine with one
another in a specific proportion to form chemical
compounds.
• The ratio of each element in the compound is
expressed in a ratio in its chemical formula.
Compounds
• Another classification scheme for chemical
compounds is based on the types of bonds that the
compound contains.
• Ionic compounds contain ions and are held together
by the attractive forces among the oppositely
charged ions. Common salt (sodium chloride) is one
of the best-known ionic compounds.
• Molecular compounds contain discrete molecules,
which are held together by sharing electrons
(covalent bonding). Examples are water, which
contains H2O molecules
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Compounds Differences between Molecules and Compounds

• A third classification scheme is based Molecule Compound

on reactivity; specifically, the types of

chemical reactions that the compounds Definition two or more atoms bonded two or more different elements
together bonded together
are likely to undergo.
• acids are compounds that produce H+ Structure group of atoms bonded matter in complete shape (i.e. table
salt)
ions (protons) when dissolved in water
to produce aqueous solutions. Thus, Relationship Not all molecules are All compounds are molecules.
acids are defined as proton donors. compounds.

• Bases, on the other hand, are proton Visibility Cannot be seen with the naked Can be seen with the naked eye
eye
acceptors. The most common base is
the hydroxide ion (OH−). Example oxygen you breathe (O2) table salt (NaCl)

Inorganic compounds Water

• Inorganic compounds include compounds that
are made up of two or more elements other than
carbon or hydrogen
• Some simple compounds that contain carbon are
often considered inorganic. Examples include
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, etc.
• Many inorganic compounds do contain
hydrogen atoms, such as water (H2O) and the
hydrochloric acid (HCl) produced by your
stomach.
• The three groups of inorganic compounds
essential to life: water, salts, acids and bases.
• 70% of an adult’s body weight is water, this
water is contained both within the cells and
between the cells that make up tissues and
organs.
• Water is a major component of many of the
body’s lubricating fluids. Just as oil lubricates
the hinge on a door, water in synovial fluid
lubricates the actions of body joints.
• Watery fluids help keep food flowing through
the digestive tract, and ensure that the
movement of surrounding abdominal organs is
friction free.
• Water in pleural fluid helps the lungs expand
and recoil with breathing and also cushions a
developing fetus in the mother’s womb as well.

Water
• Water also protects cells and organs from physical
trauma such as cushioning the brain within the
skull and protecting the delicate nerve tissue of the
eyes.
• Water absorbs and dissipates heat but does not
experience a corresponding increase in
temperature.
• In the body, water absorbs the heat generated by
chemical reactions without greatly increasing in
temperature.
• Moreover, when the environmental temperature
soars, the water stored in the body helps keep the
body cool.
Salts
• Salt is, as a substance that when dissolved in
water, dissociates (breaks down) into ions in
which the salts are made of.
• The ions produced by salts are also
electrolytes, meaning that they are capable of
conducting an electrical current in liquids.
• This property is critical to the function of ions
in transmitting nerve impulses and triggering
muscle contraction.
• Many other salts are important in the body. For
example, bile salts produced by the liver help
break apart dietary fats.
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Water
• This cooling effect happens as warm blood from the
body’s core flows to the blood vessels just under the
skin and is transferred to the environment.
• At the same time, sweat glands release warm water
in sweat. As the water evaporates into the air, it
carries away heat, and then the cooler blood from
the periphery circulates back to the body core.
• Water is considered the “universal solvent” and it is
believed that life cannot exist without water because
of this.
• For cells in the body to survive, they must be kept
moist in a water-based liquid called a solution.
Acids (Acids and Bases)
• An acid is a substance that releases hydrogen ions
(H+) in solution, they also have a sour taste, are
corrosive and change the color of certain vegetable
dyes, such as litmus, from blue to red.
• Most acids encountered in everyday life are aqueous
solutions, or can be dissolved in water.
• Acids lose their acidity when they are combined
with bases to form a salt and water. Acids have a pH
less than 7, with lower pH values corresponding to
increasing acidity.
• Common examples of acids include acetic acid (in
vinegar), sulfuric acid (used in car batteries), and
tartaric acid (used in baking).

Bases (Acids and Bases)
• Any substance that in water solution is slippery to
the touch, tastes bitter, changes the color of
indicators (e.g., turns red litmus paper blue).
• Concentrated or strong bases are caustic (able to
burn or corrode organic tissue by chemical action)
on organic matter and react violently with acidic
substances to form salts.
• The pH of a basic solution at standard conditions is
greater than seven, with higher pH values
corresponding to increase alkalinity.
• Common examples of bases include ammonia
(NH4), bleaches (used in laundry), and soap (used
in cleaning).
Measuring pH
• Using a pH indicator; a compound
that changes color in solution over a
narrow range of pH values.
• Only a small amount of indicator
compound is needed to produce a
visible color change.
• Some indicators change from one
color to another, while others change
between colored and colorless states.
• pH indicators are usually weak acids
or weak bases. Many of these
molecules occur naturally.
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pH
• pH (potential of hydrogen) is a measure of how
acidic/basic a liquid is. The range goes from 0 to 14,
with 7 being neutral.
• pH of less than 7 indicate acidity, whereas a pH of
greater than 7 indicates a base. pH is really a measure
of the relative amount of free hydrogen (H) and
hydroxyl (OH) ions in the water.
• Any liquid that has more free hydrogen (H) ions is
acidic, whereas any liquid that has more free hydroxyl
(OH) ions is basic.
• pH can control the availability of nutrients, biological
functions, microbial activity, and the behavior of
chemicals.
pH Indicator
• pH indicators are used to give a rough value of pH
of a chemical solution and it can be measured by a
color chart indicating which color is which pH.
• Naturally occurring pH indicators can be extracted
with water and other liquids from plants as a
popular introductory chemistry demonstration.
• Because indicators change colors over different
pH ranges, they may sometimes be combined to
offer color changes over a wider pH range.
• pH indicators can be bought in the form of paper
strips and is used in scientific and industrial
purposes.

Chemical Reactions
• Chemical Reaction is a process that occurs
when two or more molecules interact to form
a new product(s).
• Compounds that interact to produce new
compounds are called reactants whereas the
newly formed compounds are called products.
• Chemical reactions play an integral role in
different industries, customs and even in our
daily life.
• They are continuously happening in our
general surroundings; for example, rusting of
iron, pottery, fermentation of wine and so on.
Chemical Equations
• Due to the vast amounts of chemical reactions
happening around us, a nomenclature (way of
naming) was developed to simplify how we
express a chemical reaction in the form of a
chemical equation.
• A chemical equation is nothing but a
mathematical way to symbolizes the product
formation from reactants while indicating the
condition of how the reaction has been
conducted.
• 𝐴+𝐵 →𝐶+𝐷
• Here, A and B are the reactants, which react to
form the products C and D. In an actual
chemical equation, reactants are denoted by
their chemical formula.
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Chemical Reactions
• In a chemical reaction, a chemical change
must occur which is generally observed with
physical changes like precipitation, heat
production, color change etc.
• A reaction can take place between two atoms
or ions or molecules, and they form a new
bond and no atom is destroyed or created but
a new product is formed from reactants.
• The rate of reaction depends on and is
affected by factors like pressure, temperature,
the concentration of reactants.
Types of Reaction
• The basis for different types of
reactions is the product formed, the
changes that occur, the reactants
involved and so on.
• Different types of reactions are:
• Synthesis Reaction
• Decomposition Reaction
• Combustion Reaction
• Single Displacement Reaction
• Double Displacement Reaction
• Acid-Base Reaction

Types of Reaction
• Synthesis reaction is a reaction in which two or more
substances combine to form a single new substance.
can also be called as combination reaction.
• Synthesis reaction is one of the most basic types of
reaction wherein multiple simple compounds combine
under certain physical conditions giving out a
complex product.
• Decomposition reaction is a reaction in which a
single component breaks down into multiple products.
• Certain changes in energy in the environment have to
be made like heat, light or electricity breaking bonds
of the compound.
Other forms of Reactions
• Single Displacement Reaction: A substitution
or single displacement reaction is characterized
by one element being displaced from a
compound by another element.
• Double Displacement Reaction: In a double
displacement or metathesis reaction two
compounds exchange bonds or ions in order to
form different compounds.
• Acid-Base Reaction: also called the
neutralization reaction, is basically the reaction
between an acid and a base giving salt and
water as the products.
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Combustion Reaction
• In a combustion reaction, an element or compound reacts
with oxygen, often producing energy in the form of heat
or light.
• Combustion reactions always involve oxygen, but also
frequently involve a hydrocarbon (oil).
• Combustion does not always result in fire, because a
flame is only visible when substances undergoing
combustion vaporizes, but when it does, a flame is a
characteristic indicator of the reaction.
• While the activation energy must be overcome to initiate
combustion (e.g., using a lit match to light a fire), the
heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make
the reaction self-sustaining.
Mixtures
• In chemistry, when two or more substances
mix with each other without participating in a
chemical change, the resulting substance is
called a Mixture.
• The result formed due to the combination of
substances does not lose its individuality nor
are they combined chemically.
• Mixtures are the one product of a mechanical
blending or mixing of chemical substances
such as elements and compounds.
• Despite the fact that there are no chemical
changes to its constituents, the physical
properties of a mixture, such as its melting
point, may differ from those of the
components.

General Properties of Mixtures
• The substances in a mixture can be separated
using physical methods such as filtration,
freezing, and distillation.
• There is little or no energy change when a
mixture forms.
• Mixtures have variable compositions, while
compounds have a fixed, definite formula.
• When mixed, individual substances keep
their properties in a mixture, while if they
form a compound their properties can
change.
Separating mixtures
• Mixtures are not chemically bound
together, so it is easier to separate the
components that make up said mixtures
• It is done to obtain one of the mixtures
components in a much purer form for
industrial purposes
• Methods for separation of mixtures are:
• Chromatography
• Evaporation
• Distillation
• Filtration
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Types of Mixtures
• There are two main types of mixtures:
homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous
mixtures.
• Heterogeneous Mixture: possess different
properties and compositions in various parts
i.e. the properties are not uniform throughout
the mixture. Example would be a mixture of
sand mixed with salt.
• Homogeneous Mixture: can be defined as
the mixtures which possess the same
properties and combination throughout their
mass. Example would be sugar mixed with
water.
Evaporation
• A type of vaporization that occurs on the
surface of a liquid as it changes into the
gas phase.
• Evaporation of water occurs when the
surface of the liquid is exposed, allowing
molecules to escape and form water vapor
• Is also a technique used to separate out
homogenous mixtures where there is one
or more dissolved solids.
• This method drives off the liquid
components from the solid components.

Evaporation
• The process typically involves heating the
mixture until no more liquid remains.
• Prior to using this method, the mixture should
only contain one liquid component, unless it is
not important to isolate the liquid components.
• This is because all liquid components will
evaporate over time. This method is suitable to
separate a soluble solid from a liquid.
• In many parts of the world, table salt is obtained
from the evaporation of sea water. The heat for
the process comes from the sun.
Distillation application
• Distillation has many applications. For
example:
• The distillation of fermented products produces
distilled beverages with a high alcohol content.
• Distillation is an effective and traditional
method of desalination (the removal of salt
from seawater to make drinkable fresh water).
• Distillation is also used for transforming crude
oil into fuels and other useful byproducts for
industry (asphalt, plastic, etc.).
• Distillation with low temperature leads to the
separation of air into its components (notably
oxygen, nitrogen, and argon) for industrial use.
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Distillation
• An effective method to separate mixtures
comprised of two or more pure liquids.
• Distillation is a purification process where
the components of a liquid mixture are
vaporized and then condensed and isolated.
• In simple distillation, a mixture is heated
and the most volatile component vaporizes
at the lowest temperature.
• The vapor passes through a cooled tube (a
condenser), where it condenses back into
its liquid state. The condensate that is
collected is called distillate.
Filtration
• A separation method used to separate out pure
substances in mixtures comprised of particles some
of which are large enough in size to be captured
with a porous material.
• Filtration is used to separate particles and fluid in a
suspension, where the fluid can be a liquid or a gas.
• Filtration, as a physical operation is very important
in chemistry for the separation of materials of
different chemical composition.
• There are also filters present inside our body where
oversize particles are trapped and ingested and the
resulting waste may be released.

Types of filtration
• The major purpose of filtration is for the removal
of impurities from a mixture or, for the isolation of
solids from a mixture.
• There are several filtration techniques depending
on the desired outcome namely, hot, cold and
vacuum filtration.
• Hot filtration: mainly used to separate solids from a hot
solution, this is to prevent the formation of crystals in
the filter equipment.
• Cold filtration: the use of ice bath in order to rapidly
cool down the solution, which cause the formation of
crystals.
• Vacuum filtration: a method in which a small batch of
mixture is being placed in a filter attach to a vacuum to
forcefully filter it.
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Examples of Mixtures
• Alloys: are made when two or more metals are
mixed together. They usually are homogeneous
mixtures. Example: brass, bronze and steel.
• Mixing together two solids, without melting them
together, typically results in a heterogeneous
mixture. Examples: sand and sugar, salt and gravel,
a basket of produce, and a toy box filled with toys.
• Mixtures in two or more phases are heterogeneous
mixtures. Examples include ice cubes in a drink,
sand and water, and salt and oil.
• Air is a homogeneous mixture. However, the Earth's
atmosphere as a whole is a heterogeneous mixture
(evident due to presence of clouds).