General Chemistry

Rhommel S. Aninag, MSTChem

Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences
University of Northern Philippines

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Matter and Energy

Chapter 3

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 Properties

• Characteristics of the substance under

observation

• Properties can be either

directly observable or
the manner something interacts with other
substances in the universe

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 Universe Classified
• Matter is the part of the universe that
has mass and volume
• Energy is the part of the universe that
has the ability to do work
• Chemistry is the study of matter
– The properties of different types of matter
– The way matter behaves when influenced
by other matter and/or energy

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 Properties of Matter
• Physical Properties are the characteristics of
matter that can be changed without changing its
composition
– Characteristics that are directly observable
 Intrinsic properties – qualities that are
characteristics of any sample of a substance,
regardless of the shape or size of the sample.
ex. Acidity, sweetness, hardness, odor, density,
boiling point and freezing point.
 Extrinsic properties – properties which depend on
the amount of matter observed
ex. Height, weight, volume, temperature, length and
shape
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 Properties of Matter
• Chemical Properties are the
characteristics that determine how the
composition of matter changes as a result
of contact with other matter or the
influence of energy
• Characteristics that describe the behavior
of matter

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 Classify Each of the following as
Physical or Chemical Properties
The boiling point of ethyl alcohol is 78°C.

Diamond is very hard.

Sugar ferments to form ethyl alcohol.

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 Classify Each of the following as
Physical or Chemical Properties
The boiling point of ethyl alcohol is 78°C.
– Physical property – describes inherent characteristic
of alcohol – boiling point
Diamond is very hard.
– Physical property – describes inherent characteristic
of diamond – hardness
Sugar ferments to form ethyl alcohol.
– Chemical property – describes behavior of sugar –
forming a new substance (ethyl alcohol)

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 States of Matter

• Solid – materials with definite shapes and

volume. The particles cannot be compressed
because they are tightly packed.
• Liquids – materials with no definite shapes but
have definite volume. The particles are free to
move fast one another. The particles are loosely
packed but can be compressed only slightly.
Usually it follows the shape of the container, so
the shape varies.

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• Gas – materials with no definite shape and
volume. The particles are widely spaced
and distributed uniformly throughout it
container.
• Plasma – is actually a combination of a
gas and liquid or gas alone at a very high
temperature but the particles carry
electrical charges.
ex. Lightning, auroras, stars, sun, comet

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 States of Matter
• solid, liquid, gas
S tate S hape Vo lume Co mpre s s Flo w
S olid Ke e ps Ke e ps No No
S ha pe Volume
Liquid Ta ke s Ke e ps No Ye s
S ha pe of Volume
Conta ine r
Ga s Ta ke s Ta ke s Ye s Ye s
S ha pe of Volume of
Conta ine r Conta ine r

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Liquid water
takes the
shape of its
container.
What is the physical state of the
following at room temperature?

• Air
• Gasoline
• Gold
• Milk
• wood

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 Phase Change

• A change of phase of matter in which any

change maybe accomplished by
temperature changes.

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 Phase Change
• Melting – a change from solid to liquid phase.
ex. melting of ice
• Solidification – a change from liquid to solid
phase.
ex. water freezes to ice
• Evaporation – a change from liquid to gas
phase.
ex. boiling water

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• Condensation – a change from gas to
liquid phase.
ex. rain
• Sublimation – a change from solid to gas
phase.
ex. mothball

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 Changes in Matter
• Physical Changes are changes to matter that
do not result in a change the fundamental
components that make that substance
– State Changes – boiling, melting, condensing
• Chemical Changes involve a change in the
fundamental components of the substance
– Produce a new substance
– Chemical reaction
– Reactants  Products

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 Classify Each of the following as
Physical or Chemical Changes
Iron metal is melted.

Iron combines with oxygen to form rust.

Sugar ferments to form ethyl alcohol.

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 Classify Each of the following as
Physical or Chemical Changes
Iron is melted.
– Physical change – describes a state change, but the
material is still iron
Iron combines with oxygen to form rust..
– Chemical change – describes how iron and oxygen
react to make a new substance, rust
Sugar ferments to form ethyl alcohol.
– Chemical change – describes how sugar forms a new
substance (ethyl alcohol)

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 Classify Each of the following as
Physical or Chemical Changes
• Bleaching a stain
• Melting of butter
• Sawing of wood in half
• Digesting a chocolate bar
• Rusting of nail
• Breaking of glass
• Chopping of sweet potato

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 Elements
• Substances which can not be broken
down into simpler substances by chemical
reactions are called elements.
• It is represented by a chemical symbol
made up of one or two letters derived from
the common or Latin name of the element.
The first letter is always capitalized, the
second letter is always lower case.

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Names, Symbols, and some
common elements
Name (Latin Name) Symbol
Aluminum Al
Argon Ar
Arsenic As
Barium Ba
Beryllium Be
Boron Bo
Bromine Br
Calcium Ca
Carbon C
Chlorine Cl

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 Name (Latin Name) Symbol
Copper (Cuprum) Cu
Fluorine F
Gold (Aurum) Au
Helium He
Hydrogen H
Iodine I
Iron (Ferrum) Fe
Lead (Plumbum) Pb
Lithium Li
Magnesium Mg
Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg
Neon Ne
Nickel Ni
Nitrogen N

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 Name (Latin Name) Symbol
Oxygen O
Phosphorus P
Plutonium Pu
Potassium (Kalium) K
Silicon Si
Silver (Argentum) Ag
Sodium (Natrium) Na
Sulfur S
Tin (Stannum) Sn
Uranium U
Zinc Zn

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 Classification of Elements
• Metals
• Are the elements which on reaction with
water forms bases or hydroxides.
• Gold is an example of a metal. It is
malleable and good conductor of heat
and electricity.
• Sodium, potassium and calcium are metal,
which are all solids at room temperature
except mercury.
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• Non-metals
• Are elements which on reaction with water
forms acids.
• Non-metals are usually transparent, light
gases and brittle solids such as oxygen
and nitrogen.
• Sulfur is non-metal, it has no luster, it is
brittle and a poor conductor of heat and
electricity

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• Metalloids or Amphoterics
• Elements that exhibit both metallic and non-
metallic properties
• They are also called borderline elements
because they are found in the border between
the metals and non-metals in the periodic table
• Metalloids are poor conductors of electricity but
their conductivity increases as the temperature
rises.
• Example silicon, boron, germanium, tellunium,
polonium, astatine.

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• Noble or Inert gases
• Are very stable gases which do not
combine with other elements because they
were thought to be completely unreactive.
• Example argon, xenon and helium

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 Metal Non-metal
1. Name usually end in um or ium 1. Names end in on, gen, ine
(except helium, a gas)
2. Usually heavy and solid (except 2. Usually light gases or brittle
mercury that is liquid at room
temperature)
3. Have tendency to lose electrons 3. Have tendency to gain electron
and form positive ions and form negative ions
4. Shiny, opaque and lustrous 4. Transparent and non-lustrous
5. Good conductors of heat and 5. Poor conductors of heat and
electricity electricity
6. Base forming elements 6. Acid forming elements
7. Possess hardness, ductility and 7. Non such property
malleability
8. High melting and boiling point 8. Low melting and boiling point

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 Compounds

• Most substances are chemical combinations

of elements. These are called compounds.
– Compounds are made of elements
– Usually composed of 2 or more elements
combined chemically by definite proportion
– Compounds can be broken down into elements
– Properties of the compound not related to the
properties of the elements that compose it
– Same chemical composition at all times

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 Classification of Compounds
• Acids
• Are compounds that donate protons in solution.
• They have sour taste and let blue litmus paper turns
to red.
• Fruits like mango, grapes and apples contain acids
such as tartaric acid, malic acid and citric acid.
• Commercially available acids in the laboratories are
hydrochloric acid which is commonly known as
muriatic acid, nitric acid and sulfuric acid.

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• Bases
• Are compounds that accept protons in a solution.
• They have bitter taste and turn red litmus paper to
blue.
• Usually have slippery feel
• In our homes, we use different bases like household
ammonia, a common cleaning agent, lye, a
commercial grade of sodium hydroxide which is
used for cleaning clogged sink drains, and milk of
magnesia or magnesium hydroxide, an antacid.

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• Salts
• Are compounds formed by the reaction
between acids and bases.
• Usually no change in litmus paper is
apparent, and this is said to be neutral in
reaction.
• Sodium chloride, a common table salt, is
only one of so many compounds which are
referred to as a salt.

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• Oxides
• Are compounds produced by the union of
oxygen with other element.
• This could be further classified as Metallic
oxide, which is produced from the union of
a metal and oxygen. Example: magnesium
oxide
• Nonmetallic oxide, which is formed by
the union of a nonmetal and oxygen.
Example: Sulfur dioxide
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Classify each of the following as
element and compound
• Hg
• HI
• No
• KI
• NO
• In
• CuO
• He
• HF
• Hf
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Classify each of the following as
acid, base, salt and oxide
• HBr
• SO2
• KCl
• Mg(OH)2
• CO
• H3PO4
• Fe(OH)3
• CaSO4
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 Classification of Matter
M a tter

P u re S u b s ta n ce M ix tu re
C o n s ta n t C o m p o s ition V a ria b le C o m p o s ition
H o m o g e n e o us

• Homogeneous mixture = uniform throughout, appears

to be one thing
– pure substances
– solutions (homogeneous mixtures)
• Heterogeneous mixture = non-uniform, contains
regions with different properties than other regions

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Classify the following as homogeneous
or heterogeneous mixture

• Solder (lead and tin)

• Gravel and sand
• Raisin bread
• Coffee
• Syrup

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 Pure Substances vs. Mixtures
• Pure Substances
– All samples have the same physical and chemical properties
– Constant Composition  all samples have the same
composition
– Homogeneous
– Separate into components based on chemical properties
• Mixtures
– Different samples may show different properties
– Variable composition
– Homogeneous or Heterogeneous
– Separate into components based on physical properties
• All mixtures are made of pure substances

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 Kinds of mixture
• Solution
• Is a homogeneous mixture of 2 or more
substances, whose parts are the same
and particles are too small to be seen by
the human eye.
• Particles however are small enough to
pass through the pores of the filter paper,
the solution cannot be filtered.
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• Colloid
• Is a homogeneous mixture whose particles are
larger than those in solution but smaller than
those in suspension, hence not too large to be
seen by the unaided eye.
• Colloid particles can only be seen by means of
an ultramicroscope
• Colloid particles are of just the size enough to
scatter light. We call this scattering
phenomenon the Tyndall Effect.

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• Suspension
• Is a heterogeneous mixture wherein the
suspended particles are big enough to be
seen by the human eye.
• It exhibits a tendency to settle down upon
standing.

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 Separation of Mixtures
• Separate mixtures based on different physical
properties of the components
– Physical change

Different Physical Property Technique

Boiling Point Distillation
State of Matter Filtration
(solid/liquid/gas)
Adherence to a Surface Chromatography
Volatility Evaporation
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 Methods of separating
mixture
• Sublimation
• The process of purifying materials whereby
impurities are left as residue.
• Magnetic separation
• Is the attraction of the pure material by a
magnet, leaving behind impurities.
• Mechanical separation
• The process involves the use of forceps, sieves
and other similar tools.
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• Floatation
• Is the process of agitating a mixture by
bubbling it with air to allow some materials
to float.
• This process is used in the mining
industries.
• Centrifugation
• This process speeds up the settling of the
precipitate.

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• Distillation
• Is the process wherein a liquid solution is
boiled and its vapor is collected.
• Evaporation
• Is a method which employs heat to
facilitate the conversion of liquids to
gaseous state.
• Sedimentation
• Is simply allowing suspended materials to
settle.
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• Chromatography
• Separation technique that relies on the
abilities of surfaces to absorb or bind
substances. Use the aid of color
• Filtration
• Is the process wherein a solid in liquid is
passed through a porous material.

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 Identity Each of the following as a
Pure Substance, Homogeneous
Mixture or Heterogeneous Mixture
Gasoline

A stream with gravel on the bottom

Copper metal

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 Identity Each of the following as a
Pure Substance, Homogeneous
Mixture or Heterogeneous Mixture

Gasoline
– a homogenous mixture

A stream with gravel on the bottom

– a heterogeneous mixture

Copper metal
– A pure substance (all elements are pure substances)
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 What is Energy?
• Is defined as the capacity for doing work,
where work is simply the process of
causing matter to move against an
opposing force.
• Example, when we pump up a bicycle tire,
we are doing work, we are moving matter
(the air in the pump) against the opposing
force of the air already in the tire.

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 Two types of energy
• Potential energy
• Is stored energy that matter possesses as
a result of its position or composition.
• Kinetic energy
• Is the energy matter has as result of its
motion.

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 Example
• The water in the dam has potential energy.
If the dam is open, the water loses its
potential energy but gains kinetic energy.
• As noticed in the vehicle, gasoline has
potential energy that is converted to kinetic
energy when it undergoes combustion. As
gasoline burns, the potential energy of the
cool liquid is converted to the kinetic energy
of the hot, expanding gas mixture.
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 Energy and Energy Changes

• Capacity to do work
– chemical, mechanical, thermal,
electrical, radiant, sound, nuclear
• Energy may affect matter
– e.g. raise its temperature, eventually
causing a state change
– All physical changes and chemical
changes involve energy changes

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 Heat
• Heat: a flow of energy due to a temperature
difference

1. Exothermic = A process that results in the

evolution of heat. (heat comes out)
• Example: when a match is struck, it is an
exothermic process because energy is
produced as heat.
2. Endothermic = A process that absorbs
energy. (heat is absorbed)
• Example: melting ice to form liquid water is an
endothermic process.
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 Type of energy change is
involved in each of the following
• Cooking food
• Explosion of a mixture of hydrogen and
oxygen
• Photosynthesis
• Electrolysis of water
• Digestion of food

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Law of Conservation of Mass

• In a chemical reaction, there is a relationship

between the masses of the substances
before and after the reaction. It was Antoine
Lavoisier, a French chemist in 1789, who
was responsible for this principle. Through
stern condition, he found out that the mass of
the substance before a chemical change was
always equal to the mass of substance after
the change.
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Law of Conservation of Mass
• States that in a physical or a chemical
change, mass is neither created nor
destroyed it is conserved.
• Example: when we melt 10 grams of ice, we
get 10 grams of water and when we convert
this water into steam, the mass of the steam
is also 10 grams. During this change in the
physical state, the quantity of matter is
unchanged; mass is conserved.
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Law of Conservation of Energy
• It applied to a chemical change is
analogous to the conservation of mass law.
That is, the total energy before a reaction is
the same as the total energy after the
reaction.
• States that in any chemical or physical
process, energy may be converted from
one form to another, but it is neither
created nor destroyed.
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Law of Conservation of Energy

• Several scientist proposed that the total

energy in the universe is fixed and
constant. Energy, can however be
converted from one form to another.

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 Forms of Energy
• Radiant/Light Energy
• Is energy associated with ordinary light, x-
rays, and infrared rays. This energy makes
things visible. Ex. Sunlight
• Electrical Energy
• Is energy associated with the passage of
an electric current. Ex. Television

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• Chemical Energy
• Is the energy a substance possesses
depending on its chemical state. Ex.
Burning of wood
• Sound Energy
• Is the energy produced by a vibrating
matter. Ex. Radio waves
• Mechanical Energy
• Is the energy associated with mechanical
objects. Ex. Ringing of bell
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• Heat Energy
• Is the energy associated with heat or when
fuel is burned. Ex. Gas stove is turned on
• Nuclear Energy/Atomic Energy
• Is energy associated with nuclear of an
atom, including fission and fusion reaction
and their products. Ex. Nuclear bomb
explosion

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 Describe the energy
transformation that occurs
• When an electric bulb is turned on
• When gasoline is used to start an
automobile
• When atomic bomb explode
• When flat iron is plugged on
• When wet clothes are dried under the sun

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 Law of Definite Composition
• A French chemist observed the law of
definite composition, Louis Proust (1755 –
1826). Fifty years later, a Belgian chemist,
Jean Servais Stas experimentally
confirmed Proust’s observation.
• States that a chemical compound always
contains the same elements in the same
percentage by mass.

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 Law of Multiple Proportions

• When 2 elements combine to form more

than one compound, the masses of one
element which combine with a fixed mass
of other element are in a ratio of small
whole numbers such as 2:1.

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