Fundamentals of Computer Hardware

❖ The basic concepts of computer architecture

➢ The five major operations performed by a computer system
(a) Input- Process of entering data and programmes into the computer
system.
An input device is a hardware that sends information into the CPU.
E.g. keyboard, mouse, microphone, webcam
(b) Storage- Process of saving data and instructions permanently.
A storage device is a hardware designed to store information.
i. Primary storage-storage location that holds memory for short periods
of times. E.g. computer RAM
ii. Secondary storage- medium that holds information until is it deleted
or over-written. E.g. hard disk drive
(c) Processing- Task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical
operations, i.e. handling all instructions and calculations it receives from
other hardware devices and software programmes.
E.g. CPU, motherboard, modem
(d) Output- Process of producing results from the data for getting useful
information. E.g. monitor, printer, speaker
An output device displays and generates information that has been held
or generated within a computer.
(e) Control- performs controlling of all operations like input, processing and
output.

➢ The 3 basic computer functional units controlling the computer

operations
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)- performs arithmetic & logic operations,
has direct input and output access to the processor controller, RAM and
input/output devices.
Note: Inputs and outputs flow along an electronic path called a bus.
(b) Control unit (CU)-component of CPU that implements the micro-
processor instruction set.
Extracts instructions from memory→ decodes & executes them→ sends
signals to ALU to perform the operation
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Control units are either hardwired or micro-programmed
Note: Hardwire refers to elements of a programme or device that cannot
be changed.
(c) Central Processing Unit (CPU)- carries out the instructions of a
computer programme, and the functions of the computer or other
processing device.
The ALU & the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the CPU.

➢ Basic organization of computer system

(a) Input Unit- receives data and instructions to solve any problem
It consists of one or more input devices.
(b) Storage Unit-Holds data and instructions that are entered through the
input unit, before they are processed.
i. Primary Storage: Stores and provides very fast
Temporary in nature
More expensive
Saved programmes are transferred here before running
E.g. RAM
ii. Secondary Storage: Used like an archive
Slower, cheaper
E.g. hard disk, CD
 (c) Output Unit- provides the information and results of a computation to
outside world.

➢ Von Neumann Model

John Von Neumann (1903-1957) developed a very basic model for computers which
we are still using today.
He divided a computer’s hardware into 5 primary groups:
(a) CPU
(b) Input
(c) Output
(d) Working storage
(e) Permanent storage

❖ Computer’s Bus System

➢ Define a computer’s bus.

Network of wires or electronic pathways consisting of a number of conducting
wires to which all the other components attach.

➢ Types of computer’s bus.

(a) Internal (system) bus- Network of wires or electronic pathways that
happen inside CPU.
(b) External (expansion) bus - Network of wires or electronic pathways that
happen between CPU and another device.

➢ Types of System Buses

(a) Data Bus- A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from
one part of a computer to another.
Connects all the computer components to the CPU and main memory.
Size of bus determines the rate of data transmission, E.g. X-bit bus
transmits X bits of data per unit time
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(b) Address Bus- A collection of wires used to identify particular location in
main memory.
Size of the bus determines the rate of addressing unique memory
locations. E.g. a system with X-bit address bus can address 2X Bytes of
memory.
(c) Control Bus - The connections that carry control information between
the CPU and other devices within the computer.
Carries signals that report the status of various devices, e.g. used to
indicate whether the CPU is reading from memory or writing to memory.

❖ Memory Devices
Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed
and instructions required for processing are stored.
Memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called a cell.
➢ Memory is primarily of 2 types:
(a) Internal Memory
(b) External Memory

If a computer has Xk words, then this memory unit has X*1024=1024X memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to (1024X-1).

Hierarchy of Memory
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➢ Characteristics when we go from top to bottom are:
(a) Capacity in terms of storage increases
(b) Cost per bit of storage decreases
(c) Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases
(d) Access time by the CPU increases

❖ Random access memory (RAM)

It constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, programme and
programme result. It is read/write memory.

➢ Characteristics of RAM:
(a) random and extremely fast
(b) quite expensive
(c) Volatile memory
(d) physically small
(e) holds small amount of data

➢ RAM is of 2 types:
(a) Static RAM (SRAM)-used as cache memory (very fast and small)
Chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitor
SRAM uses more chips than DRAM, therefore higher manufacturing costs

Note: Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM does

not need to get refreshed frequently.

(b) Dynamic RAM (DRAM)- used for system memory (very cheap and small)
Chips use a matrix of 1 capacitor and 1 transistor(needs to get refreshed)
*Refresh circuit rewrites data several hundred times per second.

❖ Read only Memory (ROM)

The memory which we can only read but cannot write on. Non-volatile memory.
Stores instructions required to start a computer.
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➢ Types of ROM
(a) Masked ROM (MROM)-inexpensive, hardwired devices that contained a
pre-programmed set of data/instructions.
(b) Programmable ROM (PROM)- can be programmed only once and is not
erasable. *(small fuses are burnt open during programming)
(c) Erasable and Programmable ROM (EPROM)- can be programmed and
have its data erased with exposure to UV light.
(d) Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM (EEPROM)- programmed
and erased electrically; the process of re-programming is flexible but
slow.

❖ Processing Device
A processing device handles the intermediate stage of processing the incoming
data before it is sent to an output device. E.g. CPU, Motherboard, Network card,
Sound card, Video card, Graphics processing unit (GPU).

➢ Multiprocessing
It is the use of 2 or more CPUs within a single computer system. It also
refers to the ability of a system to support more than 1 processor and
to allocate tasks between them.

❖ Access methods in secondary storage

Secondary memory is not accessed directly by the CPU, instead it is first loaded
into RAM and then sent to the CPU. RAM provides faster accessing speed to data.

➢ Methods used to access data stored on a baking storage device

(a) Direct access (the head can move to any point on the storage medium)
(b) Serial access
(c) Sequential access
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➢ Types of secondary storage in a computer system
(a) Solid state storage device, e.g. USB memory sticks
(b) Optical storage device, e.g. CD, DVD
(c) Magnetic storage device, e.g. hard disk drives

❖ How to troubleshoot desktop ?

1. Run fewer programmes simultaneously
2. Restart
3. Remove viruses and malware
4. Free up hard disk space
5. Verify windows system files
6. Uninstall unnecessary programmes
7. Adjust windows visual effects
8. Run a disk scan

❖ How to assemble a basic desktop pc ?

1. Processor (CPU)
2. Computer case
3. Optical drive (DVD RW & SATA cable)
4. Memory (RAM)
5. Power Supply
6. Motherboard
7. Processor fan
8. Case fan
9. Hard drive