CHAPTER 2

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY AND ENERGY

In this chapter we consider nuclear reactions, changes in matter originating in the nucleus of
an atom. When nuclei change spontaneously, emitting radiation, they are said to be radioactive.
Nuclear chemistry is the study of nuclear reactions and their uses in chemistry.
Nuclear chemistry affects our lives in a variety of ways. Radioactive elements are widely used
in medicine as diagnostic tools and as a means of treatment, especially cancer. They are also used to
help determine the mechanisms of chemical reactions, to trace the movement of atoms in biological
systems. Nuclear reactions are used both to generate electricity and to create weapons of massive
destruction.
Although the growth of commercial nuclear power has slowed in the United States, it still
accounts for about 20% of the total electricity generated. The use of nuclear energy and the disposal
of nuclear wastes, however, are extremely controversial social and political issues. Because these
topics evokes such a strong emotional reaction, it is often difficult to sift fact from opinion to make
rational decisions. It is imperative, therefore, that we have some understanding of nuclear reactions
and the uses of radioactive substances.

RADIOACTIVITY

First, recall the two subatomic particles reside in the nucleus, the proton and the neutron. We
will refer to these particles as nucleons. Recall also that all atoms of a given element have the same
number of protons; this number is known as the element’s atomic number. However, the atoms of a
given element can have different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers; the
mass number is the total number of nucleons in the nucleus. Atoms with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers are known as isotopes.
The different isotopes of an element are distinguished by their mass numbers. For example,
the three naturally occurring isotopes of uranium are identified as uranium-233, uranium-235, and
uranium-238, where the numerical suffixes represent the mass numbers. The isotopes are also
labelled, using chemical symbols as , , . The superscript is the mass number, the
subscript is the atomic number.
This method of representing atoms is called isotopic notation. The subscript (Z) is the atomic
number; the superscript (A) is the mass number.

Mass number
(sum of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus)
Symbol of element
Atomic number
(number of protons
in the nucleus)

Different isotopes have different natural abundances. For example, 99.3% of naturally
occurring uranium is uranium-238, 0.7% is uranium-235, and only a trace of uranium-233. Different of
protons and neutrons in its nucleus. Recall that the term nuclide applies to a nucleus with atoms
containing these nuclei are called radioisotopes.

Example: Indicate the number of protons and neutrons in the following nuclei.
1. Since the atomic number is 25, so the number of protons is 25. The mass number is
55, and the number of neutrons is 55 – 25 = 30. The nucleus contains 25 protons
and 30 neutrons.
2. The nucleus contains 80 protons and 121 neutrons

3. 38 protons and 50 neutrons

4. 88 protons and 138 neutrons

5. 92 protons and 143 neutrons

Note: The atomic number of elements can be found in the periodic table. I will require all of you to
have a Periodic Table of Elements.

NUCLEAR EQUATIONS

The vast majority of nuclei found in nature are stable and remain intact indefinitely.
Radionuclides, however, are unstable and spontaneously emit particles and electromagnetic
radiation. Emission of radiation is one of the ways in which an unstable nucleus is transformed into a
more stable one with less energy. The emitted radiation is the carrier of the excess energy. For
example, uranium-238 is radioactive, undergoing a nuclear reaction in helium-4 nuclei are
spontaneously emitted. The helium-4 particles are known as alpha particles, and a stream of these
particles is called alpha radiation. When a uranium-238 nucleus loses an alpha particles, the
remaining fragment has an atomic number of 90 and a mass number of 234. It is therefore a thorium-
234 nucleus. We represent this reaction by the following nuclear equation:
→ +
When a nucleus spontaneously decomposes in this way, it is said to have decayed, or to
have undergone radioactive decay. Because an alpha particle is involved in this reaction, scientist
also describe the process as alpha decay. Notice that in the equation the sum of the mass numbers is
the same on both sides of the equation (238 = 224 +4). Likewise, the sum of the atomic numbers on
both sides of the equation is equal (92 = 90 + 2). Mass numbers and atomic numbers are similarly
balanced in all nuclear equations.
The radioactive properties of the nucleus are essentially independent of the state of chemical
combination of the atom. Thus, in writing nuclear equations, we are not concerned with the chemical
form of the atom in which the nucleus resides. It makes no difference whether we are dealing with the
atom in the form of an element or one of its compounds.
Ex. 1. What product is formed when radium-226 undergoes alpha decay?
→ ?+
Solution: Radium-226, the mass number is 226 and the atomic number from the Periodic
Table is 88. The sum of the atomic numbers on both sides of the equation must be equal, so the
atomic number of the product form is 88-2 = 86. From the Periodic Table, the element with an atomic
number of 86 is Radon, Rn. Likewise, the sum of the mass number is the same on both sides of the
equation. Ans.
2. What element undergoes alpha decay to form lead- 208?
? → + Ans.

TYPES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

The three most common kinds of radioactive decay are alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (ɣ)
radiation. The Table summarizes some of the important properties of these kinds of radiation. Alpha
radiation consists of a stream of helium-4 nuclei known as alpha particles, which we denote as
or .
 Table 2.1 Properties of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation

Type of Radiation
Property
Β ɣ

Charge 2+ 1- 0
-24 -28
Mass 6.64 x 10 kg 9.11 x 10 kg 0
Relative penetrating power 1 100 10,000
High-energy
4
Nature of Radiation He Electrons photons

Beta radiation consists of stream of beta particles, which are high-speed electrons emitted
by an unstable nucleus. Beta particles are represented in nuclear equation by the symbol or
sometimes . The superscript zero indicates that the mass of the electron is exceedingly small in
comparison with the mass of the nucleon. The subscript -1 represents the negative charge of the
particle, which is opposite that of the proton. Iodine-131 is an example of an isotope that undergoes
decay by beta emission:
→ +
Notice in the equation that beta decay results in increasing the atomic number from 53 to 54.
Beta emission is equivalent to the conversion of a neutron ( ) to a proton ( or ), thereby
increasing the atomic number by 1:
→ +
However, just because an electron is ejected from the nucleus, we should not think that this
nucleus is composed of these particles, any more than we consider a match to be composed of
sparks simply because it gives them off when struck. The electron comes into being only when the
nucleus undergoes nuclear reaction.

Gamma radiation (or gamma rays) consists of high-energy photons, that is, electromagnetic
radiation of very short wavelength. Gamma radiation changes neither the atomic number nor the
mass number of a nucleus and is represented as , or merely ɣ. It almost accompanies other
radioactive emission because it represents the energy lost when the remaining nucleons reorganize
equations.
Two other types of radioactive decay are positron emission and electron capture. A
positron is a particle that has the same mass as an electron but an opposite charge. The positron is
represented as . Carbon-11 is an example of an isotope that decays by positron emission.
→ +
Notice that the positron emission causes number to decrease from 6 to 5. The emission of a
positron has the effect of converting a proton to a neutron thereby decreasing the atomic number of
the nucleus by 1.
→ +

Electron capture is the capture by the nucleus of an electron from the electron cloud
surrounding the nucleus. Rubidium-81 undergoes decay in this fashion.
+ (orbital electron) →
Because the electron is consumed rather than formed in the process, it is shown on the
reactant side of the equation. Electron capture, like positron emission, has the effect of converting a
proton to a neutron.
+ →
 Table 2.2 Common Particles in Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Transformation
Particle Symbol
Neutron
Proton or
Electron
Alpha particle or
Beta particle or
Positron

Example: Write balanced nuclear equations for the following processes

1. bismuth-214 undergoes beta decay

2. plutonium-242 emits alpha radiation
3. potassium-38 undergoes positron emission
4. gold-195 undergoes electron capture
5. vanadium-52 undergoes beta decay
6. nickel-59 undergoes electron capture
7. ruthenium-93 decays by positron emission
8. gold-195 decays to an iridium isotope

Answers:

1. → +

2. +

3. → +

4. + →

5. → +

6. + →

7. → +

8. → +

PATTERNS OF NUCLEAR STABILITY

The stability of a particular nucleus depends on a variety of factors, and no single rule allows
us to predict whether a particular nucleus is radioactive and how it might decay.

Neutron-to-Proton Ratio
Because like charges repel each other, it may seem surprising that a large number of protons
can reside within a small volume of the nucleus. At close distances, however, a strong force of
attraction, called the strong nuclear force, exists between nucleons. Neutrons are intimately involved
in this attractive force. All nuclei with two or more protons contain neutrons. The more protons packed
in the nucleus, the more neutrons are needed to bind the nucleus together. Stable nuclei with low
atomic numbers (up to about 20) have approximately equal number of neutrons and protons. For
nuclei with higher atomic numbers, the number of neutrons exceeds the number of protons. Indeed,
the number of neutrons necessary to create a stable nucleus increases more rapidly than the number
of protons, as shown in the figure. Thus, the neutron-to-proton ratios of stable nuclei increase with
increasing atomic number.
The band in the figure is the area within all stable nuclei are found and is known as the belt of
stability. The belt of stability ends at element 83(bismuth). All nuclei with 84 or more protons (atomic
number ≥ 84) are radioactive. For example, all isotopes of uranium, atomic number 92, are radioactive

Figure 2.1 Plot of the number of neutrons versus the number of protons in stable nuclei.
As the atomic number increases, the neutron-to-proton ratio of the stable nuclei increases.
The stable nuclei are located in the shaded area of the graph known as the belt of stability.
The majority of radioactive nuclei occur outside the belt.

The type of radioactive decay that a particular radionuclide undergoes depends to a large extent on
its neutron-to-proton ratio compared to those of nearby nuclei within the built of stability. We can
envision three general situations:

1. Nuclei above the belt of stability (high neutron-to-proton ratios): These neutron-rich nuclei can
lower their ratio and move toward the belt of stability by emitting a beta particle. Beta emission
decreases the number of neutrons and increases the number of protons in the nucleus as shown in
figure 2.2
2. Nuclei below the belt of stability (low neutron-to-proton ratios): These proton-rich nuclei can
increase their ratio by either positron emission or electron capture. Both kinds of decay increase the
number of neutrons and decrease the number of protons. Positron emission is more common than
electron capture among the higher nuclei; however, electron capture becomes increasingly common
as nuclear charge increases.
3. Nuclei with atomic number ≥ 84: These heavy nuclei, which lie beyond the upper right edge of the
band of stability, tend to undergo alpha emission. Emission of an alpha particle decreases both the
number of neutrons and the number of protons by 2, moving the nucleus diagonally toward the belt of
stability.

Figure 2.2 Results of alpha emission ( , beta emission ( positron

emission ( and electron capture on the number of protons and neutrons
in a nucleus. Moving from left to right or from bottom to top, each square
represents an additional proton or neutron, respectively. Moving in the
reverse direction indicates the loss of a proton or neutron.

Further Observations
Two further observations are useful in predicting nuclear stability:
1. Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, or 82 protons or 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 neutrons are generally
more stable than nuclei that do not contain these numbers of nucleons. These numbers of protons
and neutrons are called magic numbers.
2. Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are generally more stable than those with
odd numbers of nucleons.

Table 2.3 The Number of Stable Isotopes with Even and Odd Numbers
of Protons and Neutrons
Number of Stable Isotopes Protons Neutrons
157 Even Even
53 Even Odd
50 Odd Even
5 Odd Odd

Example: Which of the following nuclei are especially stable

1. protons (2), neutrons (2), very stable
2. protons (20), neutrons (20), especially stable
3. protons (43), neutrons (55), radioactive
4. protons (50), neutrons (68), stable
5. protons (82), neutrons (126), stable

Indicate whether each of the following nuclides lies within the belt of stability:
1. no, low n/p+ ratio, could be a positron emitter or undergo electron capture
2. no, high atomic number, alpha emitter
+
3. no, high n/p ratio, could be a beta emitter
+
4. no, low n/p ratio, could be a positron emitter or undergo electron capture

RADIOACTIVE SERIES

Some nuclei, like uranium-238, cannot gain stability by a single emission. Consequently, a
series of successful emission occur. As shown in the figure, uranium-238 decays to thorium-234
which is radioactive and decays to protactinium-234. This nucleus is also unstable and subsequently
decays. Such successive reactions continue until a stable nucleus, lead-206 is formed. A series of
nuclear reactions that begins with an unstable nucleus and terminates with a stable one is known as a
radioactive series or a nuclear disintegration series. Three such series occur in nature. In addition
to the series that begins with uranium-238 and terminates with lead-206, there is one that begins with
uranium-235 and ends with lead-207. The third series begins with thorium-232 and ends with lead-
208.

Figure 2.3 Radioactive series begins with uranium-239 and terminates with lead-206

RATES OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Different nuclei undergo radioactive decay at different rates. Many isotopes decay essentially
completely in a matter of seconds or less. In contrast, uranium-238 decays very slowly. An important
characteristic of a radioisotope is its rate of radioactive decay.
Radioactive decay is a first-order kinetic process. A first-order process has a characteristic
half-life, which is the time required for half of any given quantity of a substance to react. The rates of
decay of nuclei are commonly discussed in terms of their half-lives.
Each isotope has its own characteristic half-life. For example, The half-life of strontium-90 is
28.8 yr. If we started with 10.0 g of strontium-90, only 5.0 g of that isotope would remain after 28.8 yr,
2.5 g would remain after another 28.8 yr, and so on. Strontium-90 decays to yttrium-90, as shown in
the equation:
→ +
Half-lives as short as millionths of a second and as long as billion s of years are known. The
half-lives of some radioisotope are listed in the Table. One important feature of half-lives for nuclear
decay is that they are unaffected by external conditions such as temperature, pressure, or state of
chemical combination. Therefore, unlike toxic chemicals, radioactive atoms cannot be rendered
harmless by chemical reaction or by any other practical treatment. At this point we can do nothing but
allow nuclei to lose radioactivity at their characteristic rates. In the meantime, of course, we must take
precaution to isolate radioisotopes because of the damage radiation can cause.

Calculations Based on Half-life

Radioactive decay is a first-order kinetic process. Therefore, its rate is proportional to the
number of radioactive nuclei N in the sample:
Rate = kN
The first-order rate constant, k, is called the decay constant. The rate at which a sample
decays is called its activity, and is often expressed as the number of disintegrations observed per
uint time. A first order rate law can be transformed into another highly useful equation:
ln Nt_ = -kt
No
In this equation t is the time interval of decay, k is the decay constant, No is the initial number
a particular radioisotope and its activity are proportional to the number of radioactive nuclei. From this
equation, we can obtain the relationship between the decay constant, k, and the half-life, t1/2
k = 0.693
t1/2

Table 2.4 The Half-lives and Type of Decay for Several Radioisotopes
Isotope Half-life (yr) Type of Decay
9
Natural radioisotopes 4.5 x 10 Alpha
7.0 x 108 Alpha
10
1.4 x 10 Alpha
1.3 x 109 Beta
5,715 Beta
Synthetic radioisotopes 24,000 Alpha
30 Beta
28.8 Beta
0.022 Beta

Problems:

1. The half-life of is 8 days. How much from a32-g sample remains after five half-lives?
Solution: Half-lives 0 1 2 3 4 5
No. of days 8 16 24 32 40
Amount remaining 32g 16g 8g 4g 2g 1g
Starting with 32g, 1g of iodine-131 remains after 5 half-lives (40 days)

2. In how many half-lives will 10g of a radioactive nuclide decay to less than 10% of its original
value? Solution: Half-lives 0 1 2 3 4
Percent remaining 100% 50% 25% 12.5% 6.25%
Amount remaining 10.0g 5.0g 2.5g 1.25g 0.625g
Therefore, the amount remaining will be less than 10% sometime between the
third and fourth half-lives.
3. How much of a sample of cesium-137 (t½ = 30 years) must have been present originally if after 270
years, 15.0 g remains?
Solution:

k = = = 0.0231/ yr.

ln = - kt

ln = - (0.0231/yr)(270 yrs) No =

ln = -6.237 No = 7,670 g

= e -6.237 = 1.96 x 10-3

4. The half-life of iodine-123 is 13 hours. If 10 mg of iodine-123 is administered to a patient, how

much iodine-123 remains after 3 days and 6 hours.
Solution: 3 days and 6 hours = 78 hours

k = = = 0.0533 / hr

ln = - kt = e -4.1574 = 0.01565

ln = - (0,0533 / hr )(78 hrs) = - 4.1574 Nt = (10 g)(0.01565) = 0.1565 g

5. Strontium-90 is one of the products of the fission of uranium-235. This isotope of strontium is
radioactive, with a half-life of 28.1 years. Calculate how long (in years) it will take for 1.0 g of the
isotope to be reduced to 0.200 g by decay.
Solution: t½ = 28.1 yr, No = 1.0 g Nt = 0.200g

k= = = 0.0246 / yr

ln = - kt -1.609 = -0.0246/yr (t)

ln = -(0.0246/yr)(t) t = = 65.25 years

ENERGY CHANGES IN NUCLEAR REACTIONS

The energies associated with nuclear reactions can be considered with the aid of Einstein’s
famous equation relating mass and energy.
E = mc2
8
E stands for energy, m for mass and c for the speed of light, 3.0 x10 m/s. This equation
states that the mass and energy of an object are proportional. If a system loses mass, it loses energy
(exothermic), if it gains mass, it gains energy (endothermic). Because the proportionality constant in
the equation, c2, is such a large number, even small changes in mass are accompanied by large
changes in energy. Let’s examine the energy change for this nuclear reaction:
→ +
 The nuclei in this reaction have the following masses: 238U, 238.0003 amu; 234Th,
233.9942amu; and 4He, 4.0015 amu. The mass change is defined as the total mass of the products
minus the total mass of the reactants. The mass change for the decay of a mole of uranium-238 can
be expressed in grams.
233.9942 g + 4.0015 g - 238.0003 g = -0.0046 g
The fact that the system has lost mass indicates that the process is exothermic. All spontaneous
nuclear reactions are exothermic.
The energy change per mole associated with this reaction can be calculated using Einstein’s
equation
2 2
∆E = ∆(mc ) = c ∆m
= (3.0 x 10 m/s)2 (-0.0046 g)( 1 kg/1000g)
8
11 2 2 11
= -4.1 x 10 kg-m /s = -4.1 x 10 J

Table: 2.5 Masses of Some Nuclei and Other Atomic Particles

Problems:

1. Positron emission from carbon-11, → + , occurs with release of 2.87 x 1011 J/mole
of . What is the mass change per mole of carbon-11 in this nuclear reaction?
Solution: ∆E = c2 ∆m
∆m = ∆E = -2.87 x 1011 J/mole
2 8 2
c (3.0 x 10 m/s)

∆m = -3.19 x 10-6 kg = -3.19 x 10-3 g

Energy is released or evolved to the surroundings (∆E is negative). When ∆m is negative, the
products weigh less than the reactant, a spontaneous nuclear reaction..
2. For the radioactive alpha decay of radium, → + , calculate ∆E in kilojoules
when 10.2 g of radium decays.
Solution:
→ +

For 1 mole of Ra-226

∆m = mass of I mole of He + mass of 1 mole of Rn-222 – mass of 1 mole of Ra-88
∆m = 4.0015g + 221,9703g - 225.9771g
∆m = -0.0053 g/mol of Ra
When 10.2 g of radium decays
∆m = -0.0053 g x 1 mol Ra x 10.2 g Ra
mole Ra 226 g
-4 2 2
∆m = -2.4 x 10 g 1 J = 1 kg.m /s
2 2 2
∆E = c ∆m 1 m /s = 1 J/kg
8 2
∆E = (3.0 x10 m/s) ∆m
∆E = (9.0 x 1016 m2/s2) ∆m
∆E = (9.0 x 1016 J/kg)(-2.4 x 10-4 g)( )( )
∆E = -2.2 x 10 7 kJ

In a spontaneous nuclear reaction, the products weigh less than the reactants (∆m negative). In this
case, the energy of the products is less than that of the reactants (∆E negative), and energy is
evolved to the surroundings.

3. Strontium-90 is a dangerous by product of atomic testing because it mimics the action of calcium in
the body. It decays in two beta emissions to give zirconium-90 (Nuclear mass = 89.8824 g).
a) Write a balanced nuclear reaction for the overall decay of Sr-90.
b) Calculate ∆m in grams when one mole of Sr-90 decays to Zr-90.
c) How much energy (in kilojoules) is given off by the decay of 6.50 mg of Sr-90?
Solution:
a) → + 2
b) for 1 mole of Sr-90
∆m = 89.8824 g + 2(0.00055 g) - 89.8869 g = -2.46 x 10-7 g/mole
c) in the decay of 6.50 mg of Sr-90 = 6.5 x 10-3 g
∆m = x x 6.5 x 10-3 g
-7
∆m = -2.46 x 10 g
2
∆E = c ∆m
= (3.0 x 108 m/s)2 (-2.46 x 10-7 g)
= (9.0 x 1016 m2/s2) (-2.46 x 10-10 kg)
= -2.2 x 107 kg m2/s2
7
= -2.2 x 10 J

NUCLEAR FISSION AND NUCLEAR FUSION

The nuclear reactions used in nuclear power plants occur by a process of nuclear fission,
whereas the nuclear reactions that take place in the sun occur by a process called nuclear fusion.
● Nuclear fission is the splitting apart of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei and neutrons
● Nuclear fusion is the joining together of the light nuclei to form a larger nucleus

Nuclear Fission
Example: Write a nuclear equation for each process
1. When a uranium-235 is bombarded by a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission and splits apart into
two lighter nuclei. One common nuclear reaction is the fission of uranium-235 into krypton-91 and
barium-142. Three high-energy neutrons are also produced in the reaction as well as a great deal of
energy.
+ → + + 3

2. Fission of uranium-235 by neutron bombardment forms strontium-90, an isotope and xenon-142

and three neutrons.
+ → + + 3

3. Fission of uranium-235 by neutron bombardment forms antimony-133, three neutrons and one
other isotope.
+ → + + 3

Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear fusion occurs when two light nuclei join together to form a larger nucleus. Ex. Fusion
of a deuterium with a tritium nucleus form helium and a neutron.
+ +
deuterium tritium
The light and heat of the sun and other stars result from nuclear fusion. Like fission, fusion also
releases a great of energy – 5.3 x 108 kcal/ mole of helium produced.
Nuclear fusion in the stars occurs by a series of reactions. Identify X, Y and Z
1.. + X → + X =
protium
2. + → Y Y =

Problems:
1. Consider the fission reaction in which U-235 is bombarded by neutrons. The product of the
bombardment are rubidium-89, cerium-144, beta particles and more neutrons.
a) Write balanced nuclear equation for the bombardment.
b) Calculate ∆E when one gram of U-235 undergoes fission.
Solution:
a) + → + + 3 +2

b) for I mole of U-235

∆m = 88.8913g + 143.8817g + 3(0.00055g) + 2(1.00867g) - (234.9934g + 1.00867g)
∆m = -0.21008 g
For 1 g of U-235
∆m = -0.21008 g/mole x x 1 g U-235 = -8.94 x 10-4 g

2
∆E = c ∆m
∆E = (3.0 x 108 m/s)2(-8.94 x 10-4 g)( )
10 2 2 10
∆E = -8.05 x 10 kg-m /s = -8.05 x 10 J

2. Consider the fusion of boron-10 with an alpha particle. The products of the fusion are carbon-13
and a proton. a) Write a nuclear reaction for this process, b) How much energy is released when
1.0 g of a B-10 is fused with an alpha particle?
Solution:
a) + → +
b) for 1 mole of B-5
∆m = 13.00006 g + 1.00728 g - (10.01019 g + 4.00150 g)
∆m = - 4.35 x 10-13 g
for I g of B-5
 ∆m = - 4.35 x 10-13 g/mole x x 1 g B-5 = - 8.7 x 10-4 g
∆E = c2∆m
8 2 -4
∆E = (3.0 x 10 m/s) (-8.7 x 10 g)( )
10 7
∆E = - 7.83 x 10 J = - 7.83 x 10 kJ

EXERCISES

I- Indicate the number of protons and neutrons in the following nuclei:

1. Bismuth-209 6.
2. Potassium-39 7.
3. Radium-226 8.
4. Iodine-131 9.
5. Plutonium-239 10.

II - Write balanced nuclear equations for the following processes :

1. Uranium-235 decays an alpha emission
2. Lead-210 undergoes beta decay
3. The alpha emission resulting in the formation of Pa-233
4. The loss of positron by Y-85
5. The loss of alpha particle by Th-230

III - Complete each nuclear fission equation:

1. + → ? + + 2
2. + → ? + + 3
3. + → ? + + 2
4. + → ? + + 2 + 6

IV - Complete the following equations:

1. + ? → +
2. + → ? +
3. → + ?
4. + → + ?
5. + → + ?

CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

ACTIVITY 3
Nuclear Reactions

Write balanced nuclear reactions:

1. Protactinium-234 undergoes beta decay

2. Oxygen-13 undergoes electron capture
3. The loss of beta particle by lead-210
4. Carbon-11 emits positron when it decays
5. Fluorine-18 decays by positron emission
6. Plutonium-239 emits an alpha particle when it decays
7. Carbon-11 undergoes electron capture
8. The fusion of two C-12 nuclei to give sodium-23 and another particle
9. Cu-63 with a nucleus producing Zn-63 and a neutron
10. A nucleus with a neutron to produce a proton and P-31

ACTIVITY 4
Problems on Half-life

1. If the amount of a radioactive element decrease from 2.4 g to 0.30 g in 12 days, what is the
half-life?
2. If the amount of a radioactive element decrease from 0.36 g to 90 mg in 22 minutes, what is its
half-life?
3. Radioactive iodine-131 (t½ = 8.0 days) decays to form xenon-13 by emission of beta particle.
How much each isotope is present after each time interval if 64 mg of iodine-131 was present
initially: a) 8 days, b) 16 days, c) 24 days, d) 32 days?
4. Sodium-24 is a radioisotope used for examining circulation
a) Write balanced reaction for the β decay of sodium-24
b) If t½ for Na-24 is 15 hours, how much of an 84 mg sample remains after 5 days?
5. Radioactive phosphorus-32 decays to form sulphur-32 by emission of β particle. Estimating th
the half-life to be 14 days, how much of each isotope is present after each time interval if
mg of phosphorus-32 was present initially: a) 14 days, b) 22 days, c) 42 days, d) 56 days?