CHEMICAL

REACTIONS
Objectives:
- Write equations for chemical
reactions and balance the
equations.
- Interpret the meaning of a
balanced chemical reaction in
terms of the law of
conservation of mass.
- Perform exercises on writing
and balancing equations.
Chemical reactions occur everywhere on Earth,
from the tiniest biological cells to geological
processes that form mineral deposits.
During a chemical reaction, reactants are
converted to products that have properties
different from those of the reactants.
The chemical properties of a substance consist of
the chemical reactions that involve the substance
as either reactant of product.
A major emphasis of chemistry is to understand
chemical reactions.
Chemical reaction
- Is a process in which substances (reactants)
change into other substances ( products) by
rearrangement, combination, or separation of
atoms.
3 General Categories
1. Precipitation reactions
- occurs in aqueous solutions when at least one soluble
product, a precipitate is formed.
Example: When an aqueous solution of barium chloride
(BaCl₂) is added to an aqueous solution of sodium nitrate
(Na₂NO₄), insoluble barium sulfate (BaSO₄), precipitates
from the solution.
Aqueous solution – a solution in which water is the
solvent.
BaCl₂(aq)+ Na₂SO₄(aq) BaSO₄(aq) +NaCl (aq)
2. Acid-base reactions
- In aqueous solution involve transfer of a
hydrogen ion H⁺ from one reactant to another.
Example: When hydrochloric acid (HCL) reacts with
aqueous sodium hydroxide (NaOH), an H⁺ from the acid is
transferred to a hydroxide ion OH⁻ from NaOH to form
water, HOH (H₂O). Sodium ions, Na⁺, and chloride ions Cl⁻
remain in thesolution as sodium chloride( NaCl)
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H₂O
• Acids in a solution produces hydrogen ions (H⁺)
• Bases in a solution produces hydroxide ions (OH⁻)
• When an acid and base combined in a solution, it
produces water and salt.
3. Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions
- Involve transfer of one or more electrons from
one reactant to another reactant.
Example: The reaction of magnesium metal with oxygen.
Two electrons are transferred from each magnesium metal
atom to an oxygen atom to from magnesium oxide (MgO),
an ionic compound containing magnesium ions Mg²⁺, and
oxide ions O²⁻.
Chemical equation
- Is a symbolic representation of the conversion of
reactants to products.
- Are symbolic representations of chemical
processes that use standardized notation to
communicate information in an efficient manner.
• A correctly written chemical equation specifies reactants
and products by their chemical formulas and must be
balanced so that the same number of atoms of each kind
is present before and after the reactions.
• For any chemical reaction, we can write the
general equation
Reactant (s) Product (s)
which we would read as “reactants yields products” or
“reactants from products” or “reactants change into
products”.
The reactants and products are separated by an arrow,
which indicates some change that occurs as a result of the
process. The arrow is read as yields, gives or reacts to
produce.
The reactants and products can be elements, compounds,
or ions.
Writing Chemical Equations
Example: For the formation of Hydrogen fluoride (HF) from
H₂ and F₂, if we weigh the substances, we find that;

Macroscopic level (grams): 2H and 2F

= (2x1.008)+ (2x18.99)
= 2.016g H₂ + 37.98g F₂
reacts to form 39.996g of HF

This information tells us little except the mass is conserved.

However, if we convert these masses (g) to amounts (mol),
we find;
Macroscopic level (mol): 1 mol H₂ and 1 mol F₂
react to form 2 mol of HF
This information reveals that an enormous number of H₂
molecules reacts with just as many F₂ molecules to form
twice as many HF molecules. Dividing by Avogadro’s
number gives the reaction involving a small group of
molecules.

Molecular level: 1 molecule of H₂, and 1 molecule of F₂

react to form 2 molecules of HF
1 mol H₂ + 1 mol F₂ 2 mol HF
2.016g 37.98g 39.996g
Divide by Avogadro’s number
1 molecule H₂ + 1 Molecule F₂ 2 molecule HF
2.0158 amu 37.9928 amu 39.996 amu
H₂(g) + F₂(g) 2HF(g)

The formation of HF in the macroscopic and

molecular level.
Chemical Equation:
*Figure out what the reactants are and what the
products are.
Example:
Consider the reaction of an antacid, baking soda (sodium
hydrogen carbonate) with excess stomach acid
(hydrochloric acid).
Based on their chemical properties, the gas bubbles
escaping from the liquid can be identified as carbon
dioxide. It can also be shown that some water is produced
(in addition to the water already present in the solution of
hydrogen chloride. If all the water is evaporated after the
reaction ends, sodium chloride remains.
We can write the equation as;
Sodium hydrogen + hydrogen carbon + water + sodium
carbonate chloride dioxide chloride
We write chemical formulas rather than names for the
reactants and products because the formulas specify clearly
what elements are in each compound and how many atoms
are in each molecule or formula unit.
The physical states or reactants and products are usually indicated
by placing a symbol after the formula:
s (solids)
ℓ (liquids)
g (gas)
aq (aqueous solution)
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is an ionic compound that
consists of sodium ions (Na⁺) and polyatomic hydrogen
carbonate ions (HCO₃⁻). Its formula is: NaHCO₃ and is a
white solid.
Hydrogen chloride is a binary molecular compound. Its
formula is HCl. It is an aqueous solution.
The name carbon dioxide implies a formula CO₂. It is a gas.
The aqueous solution of sodium chloride contains Na⁺ ions
and Cl⁻ ions , because the charges are equal, the formula is
NaCl.
The formula for water is H₂O and it is a liquid. Thus the
equation becomes;
NaHCO₃(s) + HCl(aq) CO₂(g) + H₂O(l) + NaCl(aq)
The formulas in the equation correspond with our
experimental determination of what the reactants
are and what the products are. Once established,
the formulas cannot be change because different
formulas correspond with substances.
Example: If you change the subscript 2 in CO₂ to a 1, the
formula will be CO (carbon monoxide)
• Once the formulas for reactants and the products
have been written it is important to make certain
that a chemical equation conforms to the law of
conservation
“ Matter is neither created nor destroyed
when an ordinary chemical reaction occurs”

The total number of each kind of atom in the

product must be equal to the total number of the
same kind of atom in the reactants.
 NaHCO₃(s) + HCl(aq) CO₂(g) + H₂O(l) + NaCl(aq)
Na 1 0 0 0 1
H 1 1 0 2 0
C 1 0 1 0 0
O 3 0 2 1 0
Cl 0 1 0 0 1
Reactants Products
Na 1 1
H 2 2
C 1 1
O 3 3
Cl 1 1
Reactants equals products
When a chemical equation conforms to the law of conservation of
matter it is a balanced chemical equation.
When a chemical reaction is over, the same atoms are
present that were there when the reaction started. Because
reactants change into products when a chemical reaction
takes place, we often say that the reactants are
“consumed” or “used up” and that the products are
“formed”. This does not mean that the atoms of which the
reactants were composed were consumed, nor that atoms
were created when the products formed. The “same”
atoms are still there, but they are arranged differently.
Example: In the reaction of NaHCO₃ with HCl, the H atoms
in the product H₂O are H atoms that were originally in
NaHCO₃ and HCl. Reactants disappear and products appear,
but atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
Practice Exercise
Balancing chemical equation:
When washing soda Na₂CO₄ reacts with sulfuric acid
HSO, the equation is;
Na₂CO₃(aq) +H₂SO4(aq) CO₂(g)+H₂O(l)+Na₂SO₄(aq)

Count the atoms of each kind in the formulas for reactants

and products based on the chemical equation above.
Balancing Chemical Equations
Most chemical equations differ from the reaction of
Na₂HCO₃ with HCl in that they are not balanced when
correct formulas are written for reactants and products.
Such unbalanced equation s need to be balanced. This is
done by adjusting coefficients (numbers that precede each
formula and indicate how many of each formula must be
involved in the reaction.
Example: Consider the reaction of hydrogen gas with
chlorine gas to form hydrogen chloride gas. Hydrogen and
chlorine are elements that consist of diatomic molecules.
Its formula is HCl.
H₂(g) + Cl₂(g) HCl(g)
 H₂(g) + Cl₂(g) 2HCl(g)
The coefficient 2 is needed so that the total number of H
atoms on the right equals the 2H atoms on the right equals
the 2H atoms in the H₂ molecule on the left. The 2 balances
the number of Cl atoms.
• When a formula is written with no coefficient, this means
that the coefficient is 1)
H₂(g) + Cl₂(g) 2HCl(g)
1 molecule 1 molecule 2 molecule
1 mol 1 mol 2 mol
We can use this interpretation to verify that balancing the
atoms also balances the masses. The mass of 1 mol H₂ is
(2x1.0079)2.0158g and the mass of 1 mol Cl₂ is
(2x35.4537)70.9074g . Total = 72.9232g HCl

The mass of 2 mol HCl should be the same, and it is;

Mass of HCl = 2.000 mol HCl x 35.4537g HCl = 72.9232g HCl
1 mol HCl
Relationships among the masses of reactants and products
in chemical reactions are part of stoichiometry. The
coefficients in a balanced chemical equation are referred to
as stoichiometric coefficients.
Make the coefficients the smallest possible whole
numbers.
Most chemical equations are “not balanced” when correct
formulas are first written for reactants and products. Such
unbalanced equations need to be balanced.
This is done by adjusting coefficients (numbers that
precede each formula and indicate how many of each
formula must be involved in the reaction.
• Relationships among the masses of reactants and
products in chemical reactions are part of
“stoichiometry”.
• The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation
are referred to as “stoichiometric coefficients”.
Practice Exercise: Stoichiometric Coefficients
When sprayed into the flame of a torch, powdered
iron reacts with oxygen from air to form iron (III)
oxide (Fe₂O₃).
Fe(s) + O₂(g) __Fe₂O₃(s)
1. Balance the chemical equation. Count the
number of atoms.
2. Calculate the total mass of the reactants and
product.
3. Identify the stoichiometric coefficients in this
equation.
Steps for Balancing Chemical Equation:
1. Write an unbalanced equation containing the
correct formula of each reactant and product.
N₂ + H₂ NH₃ Ammonia (unbalanced
2N 2H 1N, 3H equation)

2. Choose an atom that appears in the fewest

formulas and insert coefficients to balance the
equation.
N₂ + H₂ 2NH₃ (unbalanced equation)
3. Insert coefficients to balance atoms of the
remaining elements, starting with those that appear
in the fewest formulas.
N₂ + 3H₂ 2NH₃ (balanced equation)
4. Verify that the number of atoms of each element
is balanced. Do an atom count.
N₂ + 3H₂ 2NH₃
2N 2N
6H (2x3) 6H (2x3)
• Symbols Used in Chemical Equations:

SYMBOL SIGNIFICANCE
→ Yields; indicate results of
reaction
⇌ Used in place of single arrow to
indicate reversible reaction.
↓ Used to indicate a precipitate
formed in solution.
↑ Alternative to (g); used to
indicate gaseous product
QUIZ:
Ammonia gas reacts with oxygen gas to form nitrogen
monoxide gas and water vapor at 1000ᵒC, write a
balanced equation for this reaction.

_NH₃(g) + _O₂(g) _NO(g) + _H₂O(g)

A. Balance this chemical reaction and do an atom

count.
B. Compute the mass of reactants and products in the
macroscopic and molecular level.
C. Indicate the stoichiometric coefficients used.
4NH₃(g) + 5O₂(g) 4NO(g) + 6H₂O(g)

Atom count:
Reactants Products
4N 4N
12H (4x3) 12H (6X2)
10O (5X2) 10O (4+6)
Mass of N = 4(14.00) = 56g N
H 12(1.008) = 12.096gH
68.096g N&H
Mass of O = 10(15.999) = 159.99gO
Total mass of reactants 228.086g N,H,&O

Mass of N = 4(14.00) = 56gN

O 4(15.999) = 63.996gO
119.996g N&O
Mass of H = 12(1.008) = 12.096g H
O = 6(15.999) = 95.994g O
108.09g H&O
Total mass of products 228.086 N,H &O
Mass of NH₃ = 4 mol NH₃ X = 17.024g = 68.096NH₃
1 mol NH₃
O = 5 mol O₂ X 31.998g O₂ = 159.99g O₂
1 mol O₂
Total mass of reactants = 228.086g N,H &O

Mass of NO = 4 mol NO X 29.999g NO = 119.996g NO

1 mol NO
H₂O = 6 mol H₂O X 18.015g H₂O =108.09g H₂O
1 mol H₂O
Total mass of products = 228.086g N,H &O

Stoichiometric coefficients = 4, 5, 4, 6
Balancing Polyatomic Ions:
When 1 or more polyatomic ions appear on both
sides of a chemical equation, each one is treated as
a unit during the balancing steps. When such an ion
must have a subscript in the chemical formula, the
polyatomic ion is enclosed in parenthesis.
Example: Sodium chromate and iron(III) nitrate
reacts in aqueous solution to form a precipitate of
solid iron (III) chromate; sodium nitrate remains in
solution after the reaction. Write the balanced
equation for this reaction.
Na₂CrO₄(aq) + Fe(NO₃)₃(aq) Fe₂(CrO₄)₃(s) + NaNO₃(aq)
3Na₂CrO₄(aq)+ 2Fe(NO₃)₃(aq) Fe₂(CrO₄)₃(s)+6NaNO₃(aq)
Na: 6 (3x2) Na: 6
Cr: 3 Cr: 3
O: 12 (3x4) + O:18 (3x3)x2 30 O: 12 (4x3) + O: 18 (3x6) 30
Fe: 2 Fe: 2
N: 6 (3x2) N: 6

Mass of Na = 6(22.99) = 137.94g Na

Cr = 3(52.00) = 156g Cr
O = 12(15.999) = 191.988g O
Mass of Fe = 2(55.84) = 111.68g Fe
N = 6(14.00) = 84g N
O = 18(15.999) = 287.982g O
Total mass of reactants 969.59g Na,Cr,O,Fe, &N
Total mass of products 969.59g Na,Cr, O,Fe, &N
Mass of Na₂CrO₄ = 3 mol Na₂CrO₄ X 161.976g Na₂CrO₄
1 mol Na₂CrO₄ =485.928g
Fe₂(NO₃)₃= 2 molFe₂(NO₃)₃X 241.31gFe₂(NO₃)₃
1 molFe₂(NO₃)₃ = 483.662g
Total mass of reactants 969.59g

Mass of Fe₂(CrO₄)₃ = 1 molFe₂(CrO₄)₃X459.668gFe₂(CrO₄)₃

1 molFe₂(CrO₄)₃=459.668g
Mass of NaNO₃ = 6 molNaNO₃ X 84.987gNaNO₃ =
509.992g
1 mol NaNO₃
Total mass of products 969.59g
Practice Exercise:
In the equation for the reaction between sodium
phosphate and barium nitrate to produce barium
phosphate and sodium nitrate.
a) Balance the chemical equation
b) Calculate the masses of reactants and products.
c) Indicate the stoichiometric coefficients used.
Na₃PO₄(aq) + Ba(NO₃)₂(aq) Ba₃(PO₄)₂(s) + NaNO₃(aq)

The nitrate ions NO, and phosphate ions PO, are present before and
after the reaction. They can be balanced as units, similar to atoms.
The polyatomic ions are enclosed in parentheses when they occur
more than once in a formula.
Quiz:
Balance the following equations, do an atom count
and calculate the masses of the reactants and
products.

1. Na₂Cr₂O₇(aq) +AgNO₃(aq) Ag₂Cr₂O₇(s)+NaNO₃(aq)

NaHCO₃(aq) + CaCl₂(aq) CaCO₃ (s) + H₂CO₃(aq) + NaCl(aq)

Interpreting Balanced Chemical Equations:
In “stoichiometry”, a balanced chemical equation is
used as a basis for computing the amount of
reactants required to produced specific quantities
of products.
Example:
2Mg(s) + O₂(g) 2MgO(s)
(Reactant) (Product)
Interpretation:
2 moles Mg 2 moles Magnesium
1 mole O oxide
• The concept of “molar mass” can be used to
derived mass relationships among the reactants
and products.
2Mg(s) + O₂(g) 2MgO(s)
Molar Mass: Mg: 24.305, O: 2(15.999)= 56.303g
2 mol Mg X 24.305g Mg = 48.61g Mg
1 mol Mg
1 mol O₂ X 31.998 O₂ = 31.998g O₂
1 mol O₂
Total mass of reactants = 80.608g MgO
 2Mg(s) + O₂(g) 2MgO(s)
Mass of Product:
Mg: 24.305 O:15.999 = 40.304g

2 mol MgO X 40.304g MgO = 80.608g MgO

1 mol MgO
Total mass of reactants = 80.608g MgO
Total mass of product = 80.608g MgO
Always observe the “Law of Conservation of Mass”.
Practice exercises:
One major sources of energy of the cell is the
oxidation of glucose to carbon dioxide and water.
The equation is;
C₆H₁₂O₆(aq) + O₂(g) CO₂(g) + H₂O(aq)

a) Write the balanced chemical equation for the

reaction.
b) Calculate the molar masses of the reactants and
products.
Balanced Equations: Mole –to-Mole Relationships
Example: One source of carbon dioxide gas, an
example of a greenhouse gas, is the combustion of
hydrocarbons like propane C₃H₈. How many moles
of carbon dioxide gas is produced from the
complete combustion of 10.0 moles C₃H₈ with
excess oxygen gas?
Given: 1 mol of C₃H₈ = 10.0 mol C₃H₈
C₃H₈(g) + O₂(g) CO₂(g) + H₂O(ℓ)
 C₃H₈(g) + 5O₂(g) 3CO₂(g) + 4H₂O(ℓ)
Mole ratio of CO₂ to C₃H₈ based on the equation is;
3 mol CO₂
1 mol C₃H₈

The number of moles of CO₂ produced is;

n=10.0 mol C₃H₈ X 3 moles CO₂ = 30.0 mol CO₂
1 mol C₃H₈
The balanced equation indicates that 3 moles of CO₂ are produced
from 1 mole of C₃H₈. Thus, 3X as many moles of CO₂ (30.0 mol) will
be produced from 10.0 mol C₃H₈.
Practice exercise:
The reaction between methane CH₄ and sulfur, S₈
produces carbon disulfide CS₂, and hydrogen sulfide
H₂S.
CH₄(g) + S₈(s) CS₂(ℓ) + H₂S(g)
a. Write the balanced chemical equation for this
reaction.
b. Calculate the number of moles CS₂ produced
when 1.50 mol of S₈ is used.
c. Given the amount of S₈, how many moles H₂S is
produced?
Balanced Equation: Mass-to-Mass Relationship
Example: The decomposition of ammonium nitrate
(NH₄NO₃) produces N₂O gas and H₂O. what is the
mass of water produced from the decomposition of
30.0g of solid ammonium nitrate?
Given: Mass of NH₄NO₃ = 30.0g NH₄NO₃

NH₄NO₃(s) N₂O (g) + H₂O(g)

a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the
reaction.
NH₄NO₃(s) N₂O (g) + 2H₂O(g)

b. Convert mass of NH₄NO₃ to mole using its molar

mass.
MM: 2(14.0067), H: 4(1.00794), O: 3(15.9994)
= 80.043g/mol

n=30.0g NH₄NO₃ x 1mol NH₄NO₃ = 0.375 mol NH₄NO₃

80.043g NH₄NO₃
c. Derived the mole ratio that relates to NH₄NO₂ to
H₂O from the balanced equation and used this to
determine the number of moles of H₂O produced.
2 mol H₂O
1 mol NH₄NO₃

N =0.375 mol NH₄NO₃ X 2mol H₂O = 0.75 mol H₂O

1 mol NH₄NO₃
d. Convert the computed number of moles of H₂O
to mass using the molar mass of H₂O.
Molar mass: H₂O H: 2(1.00794), O: 15.9994
= 18.015g/mol
m=0.75 mol H₂O X 18.015g H₂O = 13.475g H₂O
1 mol H₂O
Practice Problem:
The fertilizer ammonium sulfate (NH₄)₂SO₄, sodium
hydroxide NaOH to produce sodium sulfate Na₂SO₄,
ammonia NH₃, and water H₂O. Determine the mass
of sodium hydroxide to react with 15.0g of
ammonium sulfate (NH₄)₂SO₄.

(NH₄)₂SO₄(s)+NaOH(aq) Na₂SO₄(aq) + NH₃(g) + H₂O(ℓ)

a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction.
b. Convert the mass of (NH₄)₂SO₄ mole using molar mass.
c. Determine the mass of sodium hydroxide to react with
15.0g of ammonium sulfate (NH₄)₂SO₄.
When an ionic compound dissolves in water, the ions in the
compound separate and become surrounded by water
molecules.
Dissociation
- Is the process by which cations and anions
separate when an ionic compound dissolves (the
compound is said to dissociate).
Example: When solid sodium chloride dissolves in water
the sodium chloride dissociates into Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions that
become surrounded by water molecules.
NaCl(aq) Na⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)
Polyatomic ions in an ionic compound remain intact
during the dissociation of the compound in water.

Example: Solid magnesium acetate, Mg(CH₃COO)₂,

dissociates in water into magnesium ions and acetate ions.

Mg(CH₃COO)₂(aq) Mg²⁺(aq) + 2CH₃COO⁻(aq)

Practice Exercise
Write the balanced equations for the dissociation of
each of these ionic compounds when it dissociates
in water.

1. CaBr₂ 2. Fe(NO₃)₂
Electrolytes
- Ionic compounds
- Substances that conduct an electric current when
dissolved in water.
Aqueous solutions of ionic compounds conduct electricity
because the compound dissociates and its cations and
anions can move freely in the solution.
2 Categories:
1. Strong electrolytes – is a compound that completely
dissociates into its ions when it forms an aqueous solution
2. Weak electrolytes – is a compound that dissociates only
partially when it forms an aqueous solution (conducts weak
electricity).
Solubility Rules: Aqueous Solubility of Ionic
Compounds.
Usually soluble:
Group 1A (Li⁺, Na⁺, All group 1A (alkali metals) and ammonium (NH₄⁺)
K⁺, Rb⁺, Cs⁺) NH₄⁺ compounds are soluble.
Nitrates: NO₃⁻ All nitrates are soluble.

Chlorides, bromides, All common chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble
iodides Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻ except those of Ag⁺, Hg₂²⁺, and Pb²⁺.
AgCl, Hg₂Cl₂ , PbCl₂, AgBr, Hg₂Br₂, PbBr₂, AgI, Hg₂I₂, and
PbI₂ are insoluble.
Sulfates: SO₄²⁻ Most sulfates are soluble; exceptions include CaSO₄,
SrSO₄, BaSO₄, PbSO₄.
Chlorates: ClO₃⁻ All chlorates are soluble.

Perchlorates:ClO₄⁻ All perchlorates are soluble.

Acetates: CH₃COO All acetates are soluble.

Usually Insoluble:
Phosphates: PO₄³⁻ All phosphates are insoluble except those of NH₄⁺ and
group 1A ions (alkali metal cations).

Carbonates: CO₃²⁻ All carbonates are insoluble except those of NH₄⁺ and
group 1A ions (alkali metal cations).

Chromates: CrO₄²⁻ All chromates are insoluble except those of NH₄⁺, Mg²⁺,
and group 1A ions (alkali metal cations).

Hydroxides: OH⁻ All hydroxides are insoluble except those of NH₄⁺, and
group 1A (alkali metal cations), Sr(OH)₂, Ba(OH)₂, and
Ca(OH)₂ are slightly insoluble.
Oxalates: C₂O₄²⁻ All oxalates are insoluble except those of NH₄⁺ and
group 1A (alkali metal cations).

Sulfides: S²⁻ All sulfides are insoluble except those of NH₄⁺, group
1A (alkali metal cations) and group 2A (MgS, CaS, and
BaS are sparingly soluble).
Example:

CaCl₂ soluble
• CaCl₂ contains Ca⁺ and 2Cl⁻ ions. All chlorides are soluble, with a
few exemptions for transition metals.

CuCO₃ insoluble
• CuCO₃ contains Cu²⁺ and 3CO₃²⁻ ions. All carbonates are insoluble
except those of ammonium NH₄ and alkali metal ions.
Practice Exercises:
Predict whether each compound is water soluble or
insoluble. Give a brief explanation using the table.
1. Fe(OH)₃
2. NH₄NO₃
3. Ni(ClO₃)₂
Precipitation reactions
- Is a reaction in which one or more insoluble
products form from soluble reactants.
Formation of precipitates removes ions from the solution
and causes the reaction to occur.
Example: Consider a mixture of aqueous solutions of lead
(II) nitrate Pb(NO₃)₂, and potassium chromate K₂CrO₄.
These two compounds are water soluble; they dissociate
into their component ions.
Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) Pb²⁺(aq) + 2NO₃⁻(aq)
K₂CrO₄(aq) 2K⁺(aq) + CrO₄²⁻(aq)
The aqueous mixture contains Pb²⁺, NO₃⁻, K⁺, and CrO₄²⁻
ions. Because of their like charges, the Pb²⁺and K⁺ cations
repel each other, the NO₃⁻ and CrO₄²⁻ anions also repel.
Therefore, cations do not precipitate with other cations and
anions do not precipitate with anions. Two new cation-
anion combinations are possibilities: Pb²⁺ with CrO₄²⁻ and
K⁺ with NO₃⁻.
AB + CD CB + AD
Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) + K₂CrO₄²⁻(aq) 2KNO₃(aq) + PbCrO₄(aq)

A precipitate will form if either of the two products is

insoluble or if both are.
Example:
Predict whether mixing aqueous solution of these pairs of
ionic compounds produces a precipitate. Write a balanced
chemical equation for each reaction that produces a
precipitate. If no reaction occurs, write No reaction (NR).
1. (NH₄)₂S and Cu(NO₃)₂
• Possible products are CuS(s) and NH₄NO₃. All nitrates are soluble,
so NH₄NO₃ remains in solution. Most sulfides are not soluble so
CuS(s) precipitates.
(NH₄)₂S(aq) + Cu(NO₃)₂(aq) CuS(aq) + 2NH₄NO₃(aq)
2. CaCl₂ and KNO₃
• No precipitate forms when CaCl₂ and KNO₃ are mixed because each
product Ca(NO₃)₂ and KCl is soluble. No reaction occurs.
Practice exercises:
Predict the products and write a balanced chemical
equation for the reaction in aqueous solution
between each pair of ionic compounds.
1. NiCl₂ and NaOH
NiCl₂(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + Ni(OH)₂(s)

2. K₂CO₃ and CaBr₂

K₂CO₃(aq) + CaBr₂(aq) CaCO₃(aq) + KBr(aq)
Net Ionic Equations:
- An equation that includes only the symbols or
formulas of ions or molecules in solution that
undergo charge.

Spectator ion
- Any ion that is present but is not involved directly in the
reaction.

We use the reaction of sodium chloride NaCl(aq) with silver

nitrate AgNO₃(aq) to illustrate how to decide whether a
reaction occurs and how to write a net ionic equation.
Rules:
• Determine what chemical species (ions in this case) are
present in the reaction.
Soluble ionic compounds dissociate into their component ions.
Nitrates are soluble so AgNO₃ is soluble; sodium compounds are
soluble, so NaCl is soluble.
AgNO₃(aq) consists of Ag⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq)
NaCl(aq) consists of Na⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)
• Decide whether a reaction occurs based on a possible
products and their solubilities.
Two new cation-anion combination are possible: Na⁺ with NO₃⁻ and
Ag⁺ with Cl⁻. Nitrates are soluble, so NaNO₃ is soluble. Most chlorides
are soluble but AgCl is one of the insoluble chlorides. Thus a reaction
occurs AgCl(s) precipitates.
• Write the over-all equation and balanced it.
AgNO₃(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO₃(aq)
This equation is balanced.
• Write a complete ionic equation with ions from each
soluble compound shown separately.
Remember that NaNO₃ consists of Na⁺(aq) + NO₃⁻(aq). The precipitate
is represented by its complete formula because its ions are in crystal
lattice (not free about to move in a solution).
Ag⁺(aq)+NO₃⁻(aq)+Na⁺(aq)+Cl⁻(aq) AgCl(s)+Na⁺(aq)+NO₃⁻aq)
• To obtain the net ionic equation, cancel the spectator
ions from each side of the complete ionic equation.
Sodium ions and nitrate ions are the spectator ions in this example,
and we cancel them from the complete ionic equation.
Complete Ionic equation:
Ag⁺(aq)+NO₃⁻(aq)+Na⁺(aq)+Cl⁻(aq) AgCl(s)+Na⁺(aq)+NO₃⁻(aq)

Net Ionic equation:

Ag⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) AgCl(s)
• Check that the sum of the charges if it is the same on
each side of the net ionic equation.
The sum of the charges is zero on each side: On the left (1+) + (1-) = 0;
on the right AgCl is a solid ionic compound with zero net charge.
Practice Exercise

Determine whether a reaction occurs when aqueous

solutions of potassium iodide KI(aq) and lead nitrate
Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) are mixed. If so, write the net ionic equation. If
not write no reaction (NR).

_Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) + _KI(aq) _PbI₂(s) + _KNO₃(aq)

Quiz:
Determine whether a reaction occurs when
aqueous solutions of BaCl₂(aq) and Na₂SO₄(aq) are
mixed. If so, write the net ionic equation. If not
write no reaction (NR).
BaCl₂(aq) + Na₂SO₄(aq) BaSO₄ + NaCl
Acid-Base reactions
Acids and bases are two extremely important classes of
compounds.
Properties of Acids and Bases:
• Acidic solutions change the color of the litmus paper
from blue to red , and basic solutions change the color of
litmus paper from red to blue.
• Acidic solutions cause the dye phenolphthalein to be
colorless, but basic solutions make phenolphthalein pink.
• A base can neutralize the effect of an acid, and an acid
can neutralize the effect of a base. Acids and bases are
chemical opposites.
Other Characteristic Properties:
Acids
- Sour taste, produce bubbles of gas when reacting
with limestone, react with metals to produce
flammable gas.

Bases
- Bitter taste, often cause metals ions to form
insoluble compounds that precipitate from a
solution as metal hydroxides.
Acids
- Any substance that increases the concentration of
aqueous hydrogen ions H⁺(aq), when dissolved in
pure water.
- Most are “molecular compounds” which do not
consists of ions
When a molecule of an acid dissolves in water, the
molecule ionizes.
Ionization – is a process in which a molecule is transformed
into positive and negative ions.
One of the ions transformed by an acid is always H⁺(aq). An
acid that is entirely converted to ions (completely ionized) when
dissolved in water is a strong electrolyte and is called strong acid.
Example: A very familiar strong acid is hydrochloric acid,
which ionizes completely in aqueous solution to form H⁺(aq)
and chloride ions.
HCl(aq) H⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq)
* An acid that ionizes only slightly is a weak electrolyte and
is called weak acid.
Example: When acetic acid CH₃COOH, dissolves in water,
usually fewer than 5% of the acetic acid molecules are
ionized at any time. The remainder of the acetic acid exists
as non-ionized molecules.
CH₄COOH(aq) H⁺(aq) + CH₃COO⁻(aq)
Mostly non-ionized (molecular) form a few ⁺ & ⁻ aq ions.
The double arrow signifies a characteristic property of the reaction of
a weak electrolyte with water.
Common Acids

Strong Names Weak Acids Names

Acids
HCl Hydrochloric acid H₃PO₄ Phosphoric acid

HNO₃ Nitric acid CH₃COOH Acetic acid

H₂SO₄ Sulfuric acid H₂CO₃ Carbonic acid

HClO₄ Perchloric acid HCN Hydrocyanic acid

HBr Hydrobromic HCOOH Formic acid

acid
HI Hydroiodic acid C₆H₃COOH Benzoic acid
Bases
- A substance that increases the concentration of
aqueous hydroxide ions OH⁻(aq) when dissolved in
pure water.
- The properties that basic solutions have in common are
properties attributable to the aqueous hydroxide ion.
A soluble ionic compound that contains hydroxide ions,
such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide , is a
strong electrolyte and strong base.
H₂O
NaOH(s) Na⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq)

A base that dissolves slightly in water, such as Ba(OH)₂ can still be a

strong electrolyte and a strong base if the amount of a compound
that dissolves dissociates completely into ions.
Common Bases
Strong Bases Names Weak Bases Names

LiOH Lithium hydroxide NH₃ Ammonia

NaOH Sodium hydroxide CH₃NH₂ Methylamine

KOH Potassium hydroxide

Ca(OH)₂ Calcium hydroxide

Sr(OH)₂ Strontium hydroxide

BA(OH)₂ Barium hydroxide

• Strong electrolytes are compounds that exists
completely as ions in aqueous solution. They can
be ionic compounds (salts or strong bases) or
molecular compounds that are strong acids and
ionized completely.
• Weak electrolytes are molecular compounds that
are weak acids and bases.
• Non-electrolytes are molecular compounds that
do not ionized in aqueous solution. Most
molecular compounds are non-electrolytes.
Practice Exercises
Identify whether each of these substances in an
aqueous solution is a strong, weak, or non-
electrolytes.
1. HBr (Hydrogen bromide)
2. LiOH (Lithium hydroxide)
3. HCOOH (Formic acid)
4. CH₃CH₂OH (Ethanol)
Acid – Base Neutralization reactions
- An acid reacts with a base and each neutralizes
the properties of the other.
Example: When aqueous solutions of a strong acid (HCl)
hydrochloric acid and a strong base (NaOH) sodium
hydroxide are mixed, the ions in solution are H⁺(aq) and the
anion from the acid, metal cation, and OH⁻(aq) from the
base.
From Hydrochloric acid: H⁺(aq), Cl⁻(aq)
From Sodium hydroxide: Na⁺(aq), OH⁻(aq)

As in precipitation reactions, a reaction occur whenever a compound

is formed that removes ions from solution.
In acid-base reaction, that compound is water (HOH),
formed by combination of H⁺(aq) and OH⁻(aq). In case of HCl
plus NaOH, water and salt sodium chloride form.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) HOH(l) + NaCl(aq)
acid base water salt

When a strong acid and a strong base react, they neutralize each
other. This happens because the hydrogen ions from the acid react
with hydroxide ions from the base to form water, a molecular
compound. The other ions form a salt, an ionic compound whose
cation comes from the other base and whose anions comes from the
acid. If the water is evaporated , the solid salt remains.
Balancing Neutralization Equations
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of
nitric acid HNO₃ with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)₂ in aqueous
solution.
Analyze: Reactants are acid and base this is a neutralization
reaction producing a salt and water. Hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions exchange partners.

Plan: Follow the usual procedure for balancing chemical

equations; for neutralization it is usually best to balance
ions first and H and O last.
Execute:
Unbalanced equation
HNO₃(aq) + Ca(OH)₂(aq) Ca(NO₃)₂(aq) + H₂O(l)

Balanced equation:
2HNO₃(aq) + Ca(OH)₂(aq) Ca(NO₃)₂(aq) + 2H₂O (l)
Example:
Write a balance equation for the reaction of
phosphoric acid H₃PO₄ with sodium hydroxide
NaOH.
Unbalanced equation:
H₃PO₄(aq) + NaOH(aq) Na₃PO₄(aq) + H₂O(l)

Answer:
Balanced equation:
H₃PO₄(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Na₃PO₄(aq) + 3H₂O(l)
Net Ionic Equations for Acid-Base Reactions
Acid-base reactions can be written as net ionic equations
just as precipitation reactions.
Example: Strong acid and Strong base
Consider the reaction of calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)₂, with
hydrochloric acid HCl. The product salt CaCl₂ is soluble.
The over-all balanced equation is;
2HCl(aq) + Ca(OH)₂(aq) 2H₂O(l) + CaCl₂(aq)

The complete ionic equation is:

2H⁺(aq) + 2Cl⁻(aq) + Ca²⁺(aq) + 2OH⁻(aq)
2H₂O(l) + Ca²⁺(aq) + 2Cl⁻(aq)
Cancel spectator ions, in this case Ca ions and Cl ons.
The net ionic equation is;
2H⁺(aq) + 2OH⁻(aq) 2H₂O(l)

Using the smallest whole number coefficients,

H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) H₂O(l)

There is a conservation of charge in the net ionic equation. On the

left, (1+) + (1-) = 0. on the right, water has zero net charge.
Notice that because the ions in the salt are spectator ions, the
equation is always the net ionic equation for neutralization reaction
between a strong acid and a strong base that yields a soluble salt.
Example: Weak acid and Strong base
Consider neutralization of a weak acid cyanic acid HCN and
a strong base potassium hydroxide KOH.
The over-all equation:
HCN(aq) + KOH(aq) KCN(aq) + H₂O(l)
The weak acid HCN is only partially ionized, so we leave it in
molecular form, but KOH and KCN are strong electrolytes.
The complete ionic equation is;
HCN(aq) + K⁺(aq) + OH⁻(l) K⁺(aq) + CN⁻(aq) + H₂O(l)
The net ionic equation is;
HCN(aq) + OH⁻(aq) CN⁻(aq) + H₂O(l)
There is 1- charge on each side of the ionic equation so charge is
conserved.
Practice Exercise
Write a balanced over-all equation and a net ionic
equation for the reaction of acetic acid CH₃COOH,
weak acid with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)₂, strong
base.
Analyze: Formulas for the acid and base are given. Products
of neutralization reaction are water H₂O and the salt
Ca(CH₃COO)₂, formed from the base’s cation Ca²⁺, and the
acid’s anion, CH₃COO⁻. All acetates are soluble.
Plan: Write the over-all equation and balance it. Balance
ions and then H and O. write the weak acid in molecular
form, write the strong base as ions, write the soluble salt as
ions and write the water molecule in the complete ionic
equation. Cancel the spectator ions to get the net ionic
equation.
Reactions in Which Gases are Formed:
One of the properties of an acid is that it reacts with
limestone (CaCO₃), generation bubbles.
Example: A reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with Calcium
carbonate (CaCO₃).

CaCO₃ (s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)

Carbon dioxide forms when acids react with metal

carbonates. Carbonic acid (HCO) is produced initially, but it
is unstable and decomposes to water and carbon dioxide.
Gas-forming reaction – a reaction in which gas is
generated.
Like formation of a precipitate of formation of water,
formation of a gas removes ions from solution and causes
a reaction to occur.
Example: A gas-forming reaction of metal sulfites
(CaSO₃)with acids (HCl), which produces the foul-smelling
gas SO₂. When sulfites are acidified, H₂SO₃ is formed
initially. It is a unstable and, like carbonic acid, quickly
decomposes to sulfur dioxide and water.
Unbalance equation:
CaSO₃(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + SO₂(g)

Balance equation:
CaSO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + SO₂(g)
Complete Ionic equation:
Ca²⁺+SO₃²¯+ 2H⁺+2Cl¯ Ca²¯+Cl₂¯ + H₂O +
SO₂

Net Ionic equation:

2H⁺ + SO₃²¯ H₂O + SO₂

Charges:
2⁺ - 2¯ = 0
Practice Exercise:
Write a net ionic equation for sodium sulfide
reacting with hydrochloric acid.

Unbalance equation:

Balance equation:
Complete Ionic equation:

Net Ionic equation:

Charges:
Oxidation-Reduction reaction
- One in which electrons are transferred from one
reactant atom, molecule, or ion to another.
- Also called a redox reaction.

• Oxidation is a loss of electrons from an atom, molecule

or ions. After the loss of electrons, the atom, molecule,
or ion has been oxidized.
In the reaction with oxygen, each magnesium metal atom is oxidized;
it losses 2 electrons, its charge goes from 0 to 2+, and magnesium ion
forms:
Mg atoms loses 2e⁻ (oxidized) + Mg²⁺ ions
• Reduction is a gain of electrons by an atom, molecule, or
ion. After the gain of electrons, the atom, molecule, or
ion has been reduced.
When oxygen reacts with magnesium metal, each oxygen atom is
reduced; it gains 2 electrons, its charge goes from 0 to 2-, and an
oxide ion is formed.
O atom + 2e⁻ (reduced) gains O²⁻ ions

Two Fundamental conclusions:

• In every redox reaction, the transfer of electrons occurs
simultaneously.
Electrons are lost by one reactant while being gained by another
reactant.
When one reactant is oxidized, another reactant must be reduced
• Oxidation (electron loss) is the opposite of reduction (electron
gain)
Example:
In the formation of Magnesium oxide, magnesium metal
atoms are oxidized (donate/loss electrons), so magnesium
metals is the reducing agent. Oxygen atoms are reduced
(gain electrons), making oxygen the oxidizing agent.

2Mg(s) + O₂(g) 2(Mg²⁺ + O²⁻)

Mg loses 2e⁻ per atom: oxidized O₂ gains 2e per molecule, 2 for

Mg causes O to be reduced each O. O₂ is reduced
Mg is the reducing agent O₂ causes Mg to be oxidized
O₂ is the oxidizing agent
Practice Exercises:
Write a balanced chemical equation. Identify what is
oxidized and what is reduced, oxidizing agent and reducing
agent.
1. Na(s) + Cl(g)
2. K(s) + Br₂(l)
Common Oxidizing Agents
Oxidizing Agent Reaction Product
(oxidizing agents are reduced) (reduced form)
O₂ O²⁻ or an oxygen containing
molecular compound such as
H₂O
H₂O₂ (hydrogen peroxide) H₂O (l)
F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, or I₂ (halogens) F⁻, Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻ (halide)
HNO₃ (nitric acid) Nitrogen oxides such as NO and
NO₂
Cr₂O₇²⁻ (dichromate ion) Cr³⁺ (chromium (III) ion) in acid
solution
MnO₄⁻ (permanganate ion) Mn²⁺ (manganese (II) ion), in acid
solution.
Common Reducing Agents

Reducing Agent Reaction product

(reducing agents are oxidized) (oxidized form)
H₂ or hydrogen-containing H⁺ or H combined in H₂O
molecular compound
C (coke or charcoal) CO and CO₂
M metals such as Na, K, Fe, or Al M⁺, metal ions such as Na⁺, K⁺,
Fe³⁺, or Al³⁺
Some metal ions such as Cr²⁺, Metal ions with higher charge:
and Fe²⁺ Cr³⁺, Fe³⁺
Chemical Reactions
When two or more reactants are involved in a chemical
reaction, their particles, atoms, ions, or molecules –
must make “physical contact.
The particles need freedom of “motion” which only
exists in liquids and gases (not in solids).
Types:
1. Composition or synthesis reaction
- two or more substances combine/react to form a
“single product”. The reaction between elements to
form a compound.
Equation: A + B AB
Where A and B are substances (reactants)while AB is the
new compound (product).
 A + B AB
Na(s) + Cl₂(g) NaCl(s) (unbalanced equation)
2Na(s) + Cl₂(g) 2NaCl(s) (balanced equation)

b. The reaction between 2 compounds to form a

third compound is also a synthesis reaction.
Example: A + B AB
MgO(s) + H₂O(ℓ) Mg(OH)₂(s)
(balanced equation)
c. When an element reacts with a compound.

A + B AB
O₂(g) + SO₂(g) SO₂(g)
O₂(g) + SO₂(g) 2SO₂(g) (balanced equation)
2. Combustion reactions
- The reaction of any substance with oxygen gas in
air.
- This reaction is usually accompanied by the
release of energy in the form of heat and light.

Equation: A + O Oxide of A + other products

Example: When magnesium (Mg) is heated with flame, it reacts with
oxygen (O) to form Magnesium oxide (MgO)
2Mg(s) + O₂(g) 2MgO(s)
Example: The production of rust which is chemically iron
(III) oxide when iron reacts with oxygen.
Fe(s) + O₂(g) FeO₂(s) (Unbalanced equation)
4Fe(s + 3O₂(g)
) 2Fe₂O₃(s) (Balanced equation)

• Non-metals can also undergo combustion

reaction with oxygen to produce non-metal
oxides.
C (s) + O₂(g) CO₂(g) (balanced equation)
S (s) + O₂(g) SO₂(g) (balanced equation)
• The combustion of hydrocarbon C₆H₁₄ (hexane)
does not produce a single product. In this
reaction one substance replaces another in the
formation of products.

Example:
C₆H₁₄(ℓ) + O₂(g) CO₂(g) + H₂O(g) (UE)
2C₆H₁₄(ℓ) + 19O₂(g) 2CO₂(g) + 14H₂O(g)(BE)

• All hydrocarbons burn oxygen to form the same

product – carbon (C) and water (H₂O)
Practice problem:
Predict the products of the following reactions
(synthesis/combustion). Then balanced each
chemical equation.
1. K(s) + Br₂(g) KBr₂(s)
2. Co(s) + Cl₂(g) CoCl₂(s) / Co₂Cl (s)
3. Na₂O(s) + H₂O(ℓ) Na(OH)(aq)
4. P₄(s) + O₂(g) P₄O₂(s)
5. C₄H₁₀(g) + O(g) CO₂(g) + H₂O(g)
3. Decomposition Reaction
- A compound breaks down into two or more
different substances.
- The opposite of synthesis reaction
Equation: AB A + B
When electricity is passed through water, it
decomposes forming hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O)
gases.
H₂O(ℓ) H₂(g) + O(g) (BE)
This particular reaction is highly explosive. Ammonium nitrate
is used as the main component of explosive devices.
NH₄NO₃(s) N₂O(g) + H₂O(g) (UE)
NH₄NO₃(s) N₂O(g) + 2H₂O(g) (BE)
Predicting the products of Decomposition
Reactions.
General rules:
1. Binary compounds separate into elements
NaCl(s) Na(s) + Cl₂(g) (UE)
2NaCl(s) 2Na(s) + Cl₂(g) (BE)
2. Hydroxides decompose to form metal oxides and
water.
KOH(s) K₂O (s) + H₂O(ℓ) (UE)
2KOH(s) K₂O (s) + H₂O(ℓ) (BE)
3. Oxyacids decompose to form nonmetal oxides
H₂CO₃(aq) CO₂(g) + H₂O(ℓ) (BE)
4. Metal carbonates decompose to form metal
oxides and carbon dioxide gas.
Li₂CO₃(s) Li₂O(s) + CO₂(g) (BE)
5. Metal chlorates decompose to form metal
chlorides and oxygen gas.
KClO₃(s) KCl(s) + O₂(g) (UE)
2KClO₃(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O₂(g)
4. Single replacement/displacement reaction
- Is one in which one element in a compound is
replaced or displaced by another element.

Equation: A + BC AC + B
AB + C AC + B

Zn(s) + CuCl₂(aq) ZnCl₂(aq) + Cu(s) (BE)

KBr(aq) + F₂(s) KF(s) + Br₂(g) (UE)
2KBr(aq) + F₂ (s) 2 KF(s) + Br₂(g) (BE)
5. Double displacement reactions/ionic reactions.
- Involves an exchange of ions between two
compounds dissolved in water.
- The compounds produced switched or exchange
partners.
- A solid produced during a chemical reaction is
called “precipitate”.
- Usually occur in aqueous solution (formed from
material carried by water).
- Can also produce a gas or water.
Equation: AB + CD AD + CB
A and C are cations, B and D are anions
NaCl(aq) + AgNO₃(aq) NaNO₃(aq) + AgCl(s)

a. Double displacement reactions that produce a

precipitate (ionic compounds).
Consider a reaction between (aq) calcium chloride
and potassium sulfate. When this two compounds
are mixed, a white precipitate will immediately
form.
CaCl₂(aq) + K₂SO₄(aq) CaSO₄(s) + KCl(aq) (UE)
CaCl₂(aq) + K₂SO₄(aq) CaSO₄(s) + 2KCl (aq) (BE)
b. Double displacement reactions that produce a gas.
The reaction of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with sodium
carbonate (Na₂CO₃).
Na₂CO₃(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H₂CO₃(aq) (UE)
Na₂CO₃(aq) + 2HCl (aq) 2NaCl (aq) + H₂CO₃(aq) (BE)
The product H₂CO₃ is unstable and easily decomposes
to carbon dioxide gas and water
H₂CO₃(aq) CO₂(g) + H₂O (ℓ)

The over-all equation can be written as;

Na₂CO₃(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H₂O(ℓ) + CO₂(g)
c. Double displacement reactions that produce
water (neutralization reaction).
- Occurs in (aq) aqueous solution produces water
molecules.
- Happens when acid and base reacts (produce salt and
water).
- No evidence of chemical reaction is observed because water is
colorless and odorless.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H₂O(ℓ) (BE)
 Summary: Types of Chemical Reactions
Types of Reaction General Equation Reactants Products
SYNTHESIS A + B AB Two or more One compound
substances
COMBUSTION A + O Oxide A metal and oxygen Metal oxide
of A (+ other A nonmetal + Nonmetal oxide
products) oxygen Two or more oxides
A compound +
oxygen

DECOMPOSITION A A+B One compound Two or more

elements and/or
compound

SINGLE A + BC AC + B A metal and a A new compound

REPLACEMENT AB + C AC + B compound and the replace
Or a nonmetal metal(use activity
(usually a gas) and a series of metals to
compound predict products.
Types of Reaction General Equation Reactants Products
SINGLE A + BC AC + Or a nonmetal A new compound
REPLACEMENT B (usually a halogen) and the replaced
and a compound nonmetal gas (use
activity series of the
gases to predict
product)
DOUBLE AB + CD AD + Two compounds Two different
DISPLACEMENT CB compounds, one of
which is often a
solid (use solubility
rules for ionic
compounds to
predict precipitate,
water, or gas.
Practice Problem:
Classify the following chemical reactions as; DR,
SD/RR, DDR, and NR and then, balanced the
equation for the chemical reaction.
1. KClO₃ KCl + O₂
2. KBr +F₂ KF + Br₂
3. NaCl + K₂SO₄ Na₂SO₄ + KCl
4. HNO₃ + KOH KNO₃ +H₂O
5. Na₃PO₄ + BaCl₂ NaCl + Ba₃(PO₄)₂
The Mole and Chemical Reactions
The fundamental principle of chemical stoichiometry is that
the amount (moles) of a reaction product that forms is
proportional to the amount of a reactant that reacts.
If we double the amount of a reactant that reacts, we double the
amount of product that forms.
In the balanced equation, stoichiometric coefficients indicate the
number of molecules of each reactant that reacts and the number of
molecules of each products that forms.
The stoichiometric coefficients also indicate the amount (moles) of
each reactant that reacts and the amount of each product that
forms. Example:
N₂O₄(g) + N₂H₄(g) N₂(g) + H₂O(g) unbalanced equation
N₂O₄(g) + 2N₂H₄(g) 3N₂(g) + 4H₂O(g) balanced equation
• The stoichiometric coefficients in a balanced chemical
equation can be used to obtain mole ratios.
Mole ratio (stoichiometric factor)
- Is the proportionality factor that relates the
amount of one substance in the equation to the
amount of another.
- The amount of reactants that reacts is proportional to
the amount of a product that forms.
- Are significant because we can use them to calculate the
amount of one reactant or product from the amount of
another reactant or product.
 N₂O₄(g) + 2N₂H₄(g) 3N₂(g) + 4H₂O(g)
Example: We can calculate the amount of N₂, n(N₂),
produced when 0.400 mol N₂H₄ reacts fully with N₂O₄.
Because the units of each amount are moles, this is often
called a moles-to-moles conversion

amount of N₂H₄ that reacts amount of N₂ that forms

n(N₂)= 0.400 mol N₂H₄ x 3 mol N₂ = 1.2 mol N₂
1 mol N₂H₄
N₂O₄(g) + 2N₂H₄(g) 3N₂(g) + 4H₂O(g)
Molar mass: 1 mol N₂O₄ + 2 mol N₂H₄ 3 mol N₂ + 4 mol H₂O
2N (2x14.00674)=28.0135 4N = 56.027 6N = 80.0404 8H = 8.0632
4O (4x15,9994) =63.9976 8H = 8.0632 4O = 63.998
92.0102 64.0902 84.0404 720612
Reactants = 156.10g Product = 156.10g

Mass N₂O₄ Amount H₂O Mass H₂O

Mass(H₂O) = 0.400 mol N₂O₄ x (4m0l (H₂O) x (18.0g H₂O) = 28.8g H₂O
(1 mol N₂O₄) (1 mol H₂O)
The mole ratio (4mol H₂O): (1 mol N₂O₄) provides the “bridge” between N₂O₄
and H₂O.
Coefficients in the chemical equation, together with the mole ratios they
provide, enable us to calculate a property of one substance, the mass of
water, based on the property of another substance, the amount of N₂O₄. This
calculation began with the amount (moles) and calculated a mass (grams).
This is referred as a mole-to-grams calculations.
Practice Exercise:
Calculate the mass in grams of hydrazine needed to
react completely with 0.460g N₂O₄.
N₂O₄(g) + N₂H₄(g) N₂ + H₂O
1. Begin with a balanced chemical equation that provides
the correct stoichiometric coefficients.

2. Analyze the problem to determine what is known and

what is unknown; plan a solution.
Mass N₂O₄ Amount N₂O₄ Amount N₂H₄ Mass N₂H₄.
3. Execute: Use mole ratios and molar masses as
required.
Example: Mole –grams (Chemical reactions)
An iron ore named hematite, Fe₂O₃, reacts with carbon
monoxide CO, to form iron and carbon dioxide. Calculate
the amount (mol) and mass (g) of iron that are produced
when 45.0g hematite reacts with sufficient CO.
Fe₂O₃(g) + CO(g) Fe(g) + CO₂(g)
Analyze: You are given the mass of one substance Fe₂O₃,
and asked to calculate the amount and mass of another
substance, Fe involved in a chemical reaction.
Plan: Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
Calculate the molar molar of Fe₂O₃ and use it to calculate
the amount of Fe₂O₃. Use the mole ratio Fe: Fe₂O₃ to
calculate the amount of Fe. Use the molar mass of Fe to
calculate the mass of Fe.
 Fe₂O₃(g) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(g) + 3CO₂(g)
Molar mass: Fe₂O₃ (hematite)
= (2 x 55.845) + (3 x 15.994)
= 111.69 + 47.9982
= 159.6882 g/mol
n Fe₂O₃(reacted)=45.0g Fe₂O₃ x 1 mol Fe₂O₃= 0.282 mol Fe₂O₃
159.6882 gFe₂O₃
n Fe (formed) = 0.282 mol Fe₂O₃ x 2 mol Fe = 0.564 mol Fe
1 mol Fe₂O₃
Molar mass: Fe = 55.847 g/mol
m Fe = 0.564 mol Fe x 55.847 gFe = 31.47 gFe
1 mol Fe
Practice Exercise:
Use this chemical equation to calculate the mass of carbon
monoxide (CO) required to react completely with 0.433 mol
hematite (Fe₂O₃).
Fe₂O₃(g) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(g) + 3CO₂(g)
Answer:
Example: Analyzing a Metal-Containing Sample
Chromium metal is obtained from chromium (III) oxide,
Cr₂O₂, by reacting the oxide with aluminum metal.
Cr₂O₃(s) + 2Al(s) 2Cr(s) + Al₂O₃(s)
An analyst found that 10.0 g of an impure sample
containing Cr₂O₃, yielded 0.821g chromium metal. Calculate
the mass percent in Cr₂O₃ in the sample.
Analyze: The mass % of Cr₂O₃ is;
Mass % Cr₂O₃ = mass of Cr₂O₃ x 100%
mass of sample
To calculate it, we need to know the mass of Cr₂O₃ and the
mass of the sample. The mass of the sample is given. The
mass of Cr₂O₃ can be obtained from the mass of Cr and the
balanced equation.
Plan: Look up the molar mass of Cr; calculate the molar mass
of Cr₂O₃. Calculate the amount of Cr and use the mole ratio
1Cr₂O₃ : 2 Cr to calculate the amount Cr₂O₃. Use the molar
mass Cr₂O₃ to calculate the mass of Cr₂O₃. Divide by the
mass of the sample and multiply by 100%.
Execute: Molar masss: Cr₂O₃ = 151.997 g/mol
Cr = 52 g/mol
m(Cr₂O₃)=0.821g Crx1 mol Crx1 mol Cr₂O₃ x151.997 Cr₂O₃
52g Cr 2 mol Cr 1 mol Cr₂O₃
= 1.1999g Cr₂O₃
Mass% Cr₂O₃ = 1.1999g Cr₂O₃ x 100% = 11.99/12.0%
10.0 g sample
Practice Exercise:
The purity of magnesium metal can be determined by
reacting the metal with sufficient hydrochloric acid to from
MgCl₂, evaporating the water from the resulting solution,
and weighing the solid MgCl₂ formed.
a. Balance the chemical equation.
b. Calculate the percentage (%) of Mg in a 1.72-g sample
that produced 6.46 g MgCl₂ when reacted with
sufficient HCl.
Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)
Limiting and Excess Reactant/Reagent
Limiting reactant
is the reactant that will be completely used up
during a chemical reaction.
- A reaction that is completely converted to
products.
- Limits the amounts of products that form.

Excess reactant
– is the reactant that is not completely consumed
when a chemical reaction is complete.
The amount(s) of product(s) formed is (are) always
determined (limited) by the initial amount of the
limiting reactant.
Consider this analogy to a chemistry limiting
reactant.
You are assembling gift boxes of chocolates. Every
gift box (“product”) consists of 1 cartoon with 24
sections, each containing a piece of chocolate (the
“reactants”). You could write the equation,
analogous to a balanced chemical equation.

1 carton + 24 chocolates 1 gift box of chocolates

1 carton + 24 chocolates 1 gift box of chocolates
The candy store has on hand 12 cartons and 120 chocolates.
How many complete gift boxes can be made?
If all 12 cartons are used (assuming sufficient chocolates):
Number of gift box = 12 cartons X 1 gift box = 12 gift boxes
1 carton

If all 120 chocolates are used (assuming sufficient cartons)

n of gift boxes = 120 chocolates X 1 gift box = 5 gift boxes
24 chocolates
Once the 120 chocolates are put inside 5 cartons, there are no
more available chocolates to fill the remaining 7 cartons.

Chocolates (limiting reagents), cartons (excess reagents).

• The amount of the limiting reactant that is
converted to product determines the amount of
product that can be formed”.

Reagent - a substance taking part in a chemical

reaction.
• Limiting Reactant: Amounts
Calculate the amount (mol) of nitrogen that is produced
when 1.00 mol dinitrogen tetraoxide and 1.00 mol
hydrazine are mixed and this reaction occurs.
N₂O₄ + 2N₂H₄ 3N₂ + 4H₂O
Analyze: the amount of Nitrogen produced will be
determined by the limiting reactant. The limiting reactant
reacts completely ; some of the other reactant is left. Mole
ratios for reactants can be obtained from coefficients in the
balanced equation.
Plan: Compare the actual amounts of reactants with the
mole ratio given by the coefficients. Figure out which
reactant is entirely used up and which is left over.
Execute: 2 mol of NH are required to react with 1 mol N₂O₄,
but only 1 mol N₂H₄ is available. Thus, N₂H₄ is the limiting
reactant. N₂O₄ is the excess reactant with an excess of
0.500 mol. 2 mols of hydrazine (N₂H₄)reacted produces 3
mol N₂.
Amount(N₂) = 1.00 mol N₂H₄ x 3 mol N₂ = 1.50 mol N
2 mol N₂H₄
Limiting reactant is: N₂O₄ Excess reactant: N₂H₄
Result check:
The balanced chemical equation shows that if 2 mol N₂H₄
reacts, 3 mol N₂ will be produced; only 1 mol N₂H₄ reacted
so the amount of N₂ should be half of the 3 mol or 1.5.
Mole Ratio Method
• Use the molar mass of each reactant to calculate the
amount of each reactant available; use the results to
calculate the actual mole ratio.
• Compare this ratio with the theoretical mole ratio from
the coefficients in the balance chemical equation.
• If the actual mole ratio is less than the theoretical ratio,
the substance in the numerator is the “limiting reactant”.
• If the actual mole ratio is larger than the theoretical mole
ratio, the substance in the numerator is in “excess”.
Mass method
• Calculate the mass of the product that would be
produced from the available quantity of each reactant,
assuming that an excess of the other reactant is available.
• The limiting reactant is the one that produces the
“smaller mass of product.
Example: The reaction between dinitrogen tetraoxide and
hydrazine.
N₂O₄ + 2N₂H₄ 3N₂ + 4H₂O
If the reaction starts with 500g of each reactant;
- Determine the limiting /excess reactants
- Calculate the mass (g) of water produced.
Assume that all of the limiting reactant is converted to
products.
Mole Ratio Method:
Analyze: You are asked to determine a limiting reactant and
the mass of a product, given masses of reactants. Use
either the mole ratio method or the mass method.
Plan: Calculate the molar masses of reactants and use them
to calculate the amounts of reactants.
Compare actual mole ratios with the theoretical mole ratio given by the
coefficients in the balanced equation. Identify the limiting reactant and use
its amount to calculate the amount and mass of product.
Execute: Calculate the molar masses of the reactants.
N₂O₄ = 92.0 g/mol N₂H₄ = 32.0 g/mol
Amount (N₂O₄) = 500.g N₂O₄ X 1mol N₂O₄ = 5.43 mol N₂O₄
92.0 gN₂O₄
Amount (N₂H₄) = 500.g N₂H₄ X 1 mol N₂H₄ = 15.63 mol N₂H₄
32.0g N₂H₄
Actual mole ratio = 5.43 mol N₂O₄ = 0.348 mol N₂O₄
15.63 mol N₂H₄ 1 mol N₂H₄
Theoretical mole ratio = 1 mol N₂O₄ = 0.500 mol N₂O₄
2 mol N₂H₄ 1 mol N₂H₄
Limiting reactant: N₂O₄ Excess reactant: N₂H₄
Mass Method:
Plan: Calculate the mass of water that would be produced if
500.g N₂O₄ reacted, assuming that sufficient N₂H₄ is
present. Then, calculate the mass of water that would be
produced if all 500. g N₂H₄ reacted, assuming that sufficient
N₂O₄ is present.
- Determine which reactant produces the smaller mass of
product (limiting reactant).
Execute: Calculate the mass of H₂O based on the initial
mass of each reactant:
m(H₂O, if N₂O₄ limiting =
500.g N₂O₄ X 1 mol N₂O₄ X 4 mol H₂O X 18.015g H₂O =391.65g H₂O
91.996g N₂O₄ 1 mol N₂O₄ 1 mol H₂O
m(H₂O, if N₂O₄ limiting) =
500.g N₂O₄ X 1 mol N₂O₄ X 4 mol H₂O X 18.015g H₂O =391.65g H₂O
92.0g N₂O₄ 1 mol N₂O₄ 1 mol H₂O

m(H₂O, if N₂H₄ limiting) =

500.g N₂H₄ X 1 mol N₂H₄ X 4 mol H₂O X 18.015g H₂O =562.41g H₂O
32.032g N₂H₄ 2 mol N₂H₄ 1 mol H₂O

562.41g - 500g = 62.45g N₂H₄ excess

The limiting reactant: N₂O₄ Excess reactant: N₂H₄

Limiting and Excess Reactant:
Example: Powdered aluminum reacts with iron (III) oxide in
the thermite reaction to form molten iron and aluminum
oxide.
Al(s) + Fe₂O₃(s) Fe(ℓ) + Al₂O₃(s)

Liquid iron is produced because the reaction releases

enough energy to raise the temperature above the melting
point of iron. This liquid iron can be used to weld steel
railroad rails.
suppose that a mixture of 100.g Al and 100.g Fe₂O₃ reacts;
a. Write a balance equation for this reaction.
b. Determine which is the limiting and excess
reactants.
c. Calculate the mass (g) of liquid iron formed.
d. Calculate the mass of excess reactant that
remains after the reaction is complete.
Analyze: To determine the mass of product, it is
first necessary to determine whether there is a
limiting reactant. The limiting reactant must be
used to calculate the mass of product. The mass of
the excess reactant that remains is the difference
between the initial mass and the mass that reacted.
Plan: Determine the amount of each reactant available. Use
the mass method to determine the limiting reactant.
Calculate the mass of Fe(ℓ) that forms from the amount of
the limiting reactant. Calculate the mass of excess reactant
that reacted from the amount of the limiting reactants.
Subtract that mass from the initial mass of the excess
reactant.
Execute: Calculate the amount of each reactant.
2Al(s) + Fe₂O₃(s) 2Fe(ℓ) + Al₂O₃(s)
Molar Masses:
Fe₂O₃: Fe:2(55.84), O:3(15.999) = 159.677g/mol
Al₂O₃: Al:2(26.98), O:3(15.999)= 101. 957g/mol
Fe: 55.84g/mol
Al: 26.98g/mol
Calculate the amount of each reactant.
n Al= 100.g Al X 1 mol Al = 3.71 mol Al
26.98g Al
n Fe₂O₃: 100.g Fe₂O₃ X 1 mol Fe₂O₃ =0.6262 mol Fe₂O₃
159.677g Fe₂O₃

Actual mole ratio = 3.71 mol Al = 5.92 mol Al

0.6262 mol Fe₂O₃ 1 mol Fe₂O₃
Theoretical mole ratio = 2 mol Al = 2 mol Al
1 mol Fe₂O₃ 1 mol Fe₂O₃
Limiting reactant: Fe₂O₃ Excess reactant: Al
Use the mass method to determine the limiting
reactants:
m(Fe, if Al is limiting)
= 3.71 mol Al X 2 mol Fe X 55.84g Fe
2 mol Al 1 mol Fe
= 207.17g Fe
M(Fe if Fe₂O₃ is limiting)
= 0.6262 mol Fe₂O₃ X 2 mol Fe X 55.84 gFe
1 mol Fe₂O₃ 1 mol Fe
= 69.93g Fe
207.17g - 100g = 107.17g Al excess
Practice Exercise:
Urea (NH₂)₂CO is used as a fertilizer because it can
react with water to release ammonia (NH₃), which
provides nitrogen to plants.
(NH₂)₂CO(s) + H₂O(l) NH₃(aq) + CO₂(g)
a. Balance the chemical equation
b. When 300g of urea and 100g of water are combined,
calculate the amount of ammonia and the mass of
carbon dioxide form.
Use the mass method to determine the masses of the products.
a. Calculate the mass of the excess reactant that remains
after the reaction.
Use urea to calculate the mass of carbon dioxide.
Evaluating Chemical Synthesis: Percent Yield
A reaction that converts the limiting reactant into the
maximum possible quality of product is said to have 100%
yield.
Theoretical yield- is the maximum possible quantity
of product.
Actual yield – is the quantity of desired product
actually obtained from a synthesis in a laboratory or
industrial chemical plant less than the theoretical
yield.
The efficiency of a particular synthesis method is evaluated
by calculating the percent yield.
Percent yield – is the ratio of actual to theoretical
yield.
Formula: Percent yield = actual yield X 100
theoretical yield
Example: Suppose a student carried out the synthesis and
obtained 2.2g aspirin rather than the calculated theoretical
yield of 2.6g. The % yield is;
% yield = 2.2g aspirin X 100 = 84.61%
2.6g aspirin
Calculating Percent Yield:
Methanol CH₃CH is an excellent fuel, and it can be
produced from carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
CO(g) + H₂(g) CH₃OH(l)
If 500.g CO reacts with sufficient H₂ and 485g CH₃OH is
produced , calculate the percent yield of the reaction.

Analyze: Sufficient H means that CO is limiting. Calculate

the theoretical yield of CH₃OH and compare it with the
mass actually produced.
Plan: Calculate the amount of CO. use a mole ratio from the
balanced equation to calculate the amount of CH₃OH and
the mass of CH₃OH that can be produced if the synthesis
were perfect. Calculate percent yield.
Execute: Molar mass of CO= 28.01 g/mol
CH₃OH = 32.0 g/mol
The calculation of theoretical yield can be done in a single
step. The first factor calculates the amount of CO. The
second factor is the mole ratio. The third factor calculates
the mass of CH₃OH.
mCO = 500.g CO x 1 mol CO x1mol CH₃OH x 32.041gCH₃OH
28.009g CO 1mol CO 1mol CH₃OH
= 571.97g CH₃OH
The problem states that 485g CH₃OH was produced, so
% yield = 485g CH₃OH x 100 = 84.79/ 85%
571.97g CH₂OH
Practice Exercise:
10.0g of bromic acid, HBrO₃, is reacted with excess
HBr according to the reaction.
HBrO₃(aq) + HBr(aq) H₂O(l) + Br₂(aq)
a. Write a balanced chemical equation for this
reaction.
b. What is the theoretical yield of Br₂ for this
reaction?
c. If 22.3g Br₂ is produced, what is the percentage
yield of Br₂?
Predicting Actual Yield from Percent Yield
Example: When Benzene C₆H₆ is reacted with nitric acid
HNO₃ in the presence of an acid catalyst, nitrobenzene
C₆H₅NO₂ is formed:
C₆H₆(l) + HNO₃(aq) C₆H₅NO₂(l) + H₂O(l)
In an experiment, this reaction gave 70% yield. What mass
of C₆H₅NO₂ was produced if 15.0g of C₆H₆ was used to react
with excess HNO₃?
Solve for the theoretical yield of C₆H₅NO₂ .
m C₆H₆ = 15.0g C₆H₆ X 1mol C₆H₆ X 1mol C₆H₅NO₂ X
78.648g C₆H₆ 1 mol C₆H₆
= 123.098g C₆H₅NO₂ = 23.49g C₆H₅NO₂
1 mol C₆H₅NO₂
The actual percent yield of C₆H₅NO₂ is;
Actual yield = 23.49g C₆H₅NO₂ x70 =16.44g C₆H₅NO₂
100
Percent yield = 16.44 g C₆H₅NO₂ X 100 = 70%
23.49g C₆H₅NO₂
• Potassium chlorate decomposes upon slight
heating in the presence of a catalyst according
to the reaction below:
KClO₃(s) KCl(s) + O₂(g)
In a certain experiment, 40.0 g KClO3 is heated until it
completely decomposes. What is the theoretical yield
of oxygen gas? The experiment is performed and the
oxygen gas is collected and its mass is found to be 14.9
g. What is the percent yield for the reaction?
A. Balance the chemical equation
B. Calculate the theoretical yield based on the
stoichiometry.
List the known quantities and plan the problem.
Known: Actual yield = 14.9 g
Theoretical yield = 15.67 g
Unknown: Percent yield = ? %
Solve.
Percent Yield=14.9 g
Percent yield = ? %
Percent yield = Actual yield X 100%
Theoretical yield
= 14.9 g X 100
15.67 g
= 94.09%
Solution Concentration: Molarity
Many of he substances in our body, or in living systems are
dissolved in water – that is, they are in aqueous solution,
like chemical reactions in living systems, many reactions in
the chemical laboratory are carried out in solution.
To accomplished this task, we make solutions in which we know the
amount or mass of each component per unit volume of solution.
Then, we can measure volumes of solution rather than masses of
solids, liquids, and gases.
A solution is a homogeneous mixture
Solute – is a substance that has been dissolved
Solvent - is the substance in which one or more
solutes has been dissolved.
To know the quantity of solute in a given volume of a liquid
solution requires knowing the composition of the solution –
the relative quantities of more solute and solvent. The most
useful in expressing solution composition is studying
chemical reactions in solution is molarity.
Concentration or molarity of a solution
- Is the amount of solute per unit volume of solution.
- It is usually expressed in moles per liter (mol/L.,
abbreviated M).

Molarity = amount of solute (moles)

volume of solution (liters)
Note that the volume term in the denominator is volume of solution,
not the volume of the solvent. The International Union of Applied
Chemistry uses the term concentration and abbreviation c to
represent what we call molarity.
Example: 40.0g (1.00mol) NaOH is dissolved in sufficient
water to produced a solution with a total volume of 1.00L,
the solution has a concentration of 1.00 mol NaOH per
1.00L of solution, which is a 1.00 molar solution. The
molarity of this solution is reported as 1.00 M (stands for
the units mol/L.
Molarity is also represented by the letter c, sometimes
followed by the formula of a compound or ion, such as
c(NaOH) or c(OH⁻). Writing c(NaOH) = 2 M indicates that 2
mol NaOH is dissolved per liter of solution.
molarity of NaOH solution 2 mol NaOH per liter of solution
C(NaOH) = 2 mol NaOH = 2 mol/L or 2 mol M
1 L solution

A solution of known molarity can be made by adding the

required amount of solute to a volumetric flask, adding
some solvent to dissolved all the solute, and then adding a
sufficient solvent with continual mixing to fill the flask to
the mark etched on the flask’s neck.
Problem Exercise
In aqueous solution, Potassium permanganate KMnO₄, is a
strong oxidizing agent that is often used in laboratory
experiment. Calculate the molarity of a solution made by
placing 0.433g KMnO₄ in a 500.0 mL volumetric flask and
adding water until the volume is exactly 500.0 mL.
Plan: Molarity is amount per unit volume. The amount of
solute can be calculated from the mass. The solution
volume is given.
Plan: Use the mass and the molar mass to calculate the
amount of solute. Change units for the volume from mL – L.
then, divide the amount by the volume.
Execute:
m(KMnO₄)= 0.433g KMnO₄ x 1 mol KMnO₄
158.03g KMnO₄
= 0.002739 mol KMnO₄ /2.74 x10⁻³ mol KMnO₄
Molarity of KMnO₄;
c(KMnO₄) = 0.002739 molKMnO₄ x 1000 mL
500.0 mL solution 1L
= 0.00548 mol/L KMnO₄ /5.48x10⁻³ mol/L KMnO₄
Quiz:
A blood serum cholesterol level greater than 240mg
cholesterol per deciliter (0.100 L) of blood unusually
indicates the need for medical intervention.
Calculate this serum cholesterol level in mol/L.
Cholesterol’s molecular formula is C₂₇H₄₆O.
Answer:
Preparing a Solution of Known Molarity from a Pure
Solute
Consider a laboratory experiment that requires 2.00L of
0.750 M NH₄Cl solution. What masses of NH₄Cl must be
dissolved in water to make 2.00L of solution? The amount of
NH₄Cl required can be calculated from the molarity.
m(NH₄Cl) = 0.750 mol NH₄Cl x 2.00 L solution
1 L solution
= 1.500 mol NH₄Cl M X L = mol/L = mol
Then the molar mass can be used to calculate the mass of
NH₄Cl needed.
M(NH₄Cl) = 1.500 mol NH₄Cl x 53.49g NH₄Cl = 80.24gNH₄Cl
1 mol NH₄Cl
Practice Exercise
Describe how to prepare 500.0mL of 0.0250-M K₂Cr₂O₇
solution starting with solid potassium dichromate.
Analyze: Solution concentration and volume of solution are
known. The amount of solute is proportional to the volume
and the proportionality factor is molarity. From the amount
of solute, its mass can be calculated.
Plan: Use the concentration to calculate how many moles of
K₂Cr₂O₇ are needed and use the molar mass to calculate the
mass.
Execute:
m(K₂Cr₂O₇) = 500.0mL K₂Cr₂O₇ x 1 L x 0.0250 mol K₂Cr₂O₇
1000mL 1 L solution
= 0.0125mol K₂Cr₂O₇ or 1.25 x 10⁻² mol K₂Cr₂O₇

The molar mass of K₂Cr₂O₇ is 294.2g/mol.

m(K₂Cr₂O₇) = 0.0125g K₂Cr₂O₇ x 294.2g K₂Cr₂O₇
1 mol K₂Cr₂O₇
= 3.6775g K₂Cr₂O₇
Preparing 250.0mL of 0.00500-M aqueous solution
from solid KMnO₄ and pure water.
Procedure:
1. Combine 240mL pure water with 0.198g (0.00125mol
KMnO₄) in a 250mL volumetric flask.
2. Shake the flask to dissolved the KMnO₄. After the solid
dissolves;
3. Add pure water to the mark etched in the neck.
4. The flask now contains 250mL of 0.00500-M KMnO₄
solution.
Preparing a Solution by Dilution
Frequently, solutions of the same solute need to be
available at several different molarities. To make this
solutions, chemist often use a concentrated solution of
known molarity and dilute it.

Dilution – means adding solvent (mostly water) to make a

solution of lower concentration.
Because the process of dilution involves adding solvent only, the
amount of solute in the diluted solution is exactly the same as always
in the conventional solution.
Diluting a solution increases the volume, so the molarity is lowered,
even though the amount of solute remains unchanged.
The amount of solute always equals the molarity
times the volume.
c(conc) x V(conc) = amount of solute = c(dil) x V(dil)
Where c(conc) and V(conc) represent the molarity and the volume of
the concentrated solution, and c(dil) and V(dil) represent the molarity
and the volume of the dilute solution.
Solution Preparation by Dilution:
1. Begin with a stock solution of 0.100-M K₂Cr₂O₇ (aq) and a supply
of pure water.
2. With a pipet, transfer 25.0mL K₂Cr₂O₇ (aq) to 250mL volumetric
flask.
3. Add pure water to the flask with repeating mixing until there is
solution near the neck of the flask.
4. Add pure water drop wise to reach the mark of the flask. The
(conc) of the K₂Cr₂O₇ in the diluted solution is 0.0100-M.
Example: The concentration of hydrochloric acid solution
made by diluting 25.0mL of 6.0-M HCl to 500mL. In this
case, we want to determine c(dil) when c(conc) = 6.0M.
V(conc) = 0.0250L and V(dil) = 0.500L. We algebraically
rearrange the relationship to get the concentration of the
diluted HCl.ss

c(dil) =c(conc) x V(conc) = (6.0 mol/L) x 0.0250L = 0.30mol/L

V(dil) 0.500 L
Practice Problem:
Describe how to prepare 500.0mL of 1.00-M H₂SO₄ solution
from a concentrated sulfuric acid solution that is 18.0 M.
Analyze: Add 27.8mL of the concentrated sulfuric acid
slowly, carefully, and with stirring to about 450mL water.
After the sulfuric acid is thoroughly mixed with the water,
add water to make up a total of 500.0mL solution.
Plan: Rearrange the dilution equation to calculate the
volume. c(conc) x V(conc) = c(dil) x V(dil)
Execute:
V(conc) = c(dil) x V(dil) = 1.00mol/L x 0.5000L x 1000mL
c(conc) 18.0mol/L 1L
= 27.78 mL
Stoichiometry in Aqueous Solutions
Many kinds of reactions – acid-base, precipitation and
redox occur in aqueous solutions. In such reactions,
molarity allows us to make conversions between volumes of
solutions and moles of reactants and products as given by
the stoichiometric coefficients.
Molarity links mass, amount (moles), and volume of
solution.
Mass A Amount A Amount B Mass B
Use molar mass of A Use mole ratio Use molar mass of B

Vol A sol Amount A Amount B Vol B sol

Use solution molarity of A Use mole ratio Use solution molarity of B
Example: Limestone; CaCO₃ reacts with HCl to produce the
salt CaCl₂, CO₂ and H₂O.
Calculate the mass of CaCO₃ that reacts with 10.0mL of
3.00-M HCl.
Chemical equation:
CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl₂(aq) + CO₂(g) + H₂O(l)
Analyze: you know the volume and concentration of HCl
and are added to calculate the mass of CaCO₃ that reacts
with it. Amount is proportional to volume concentration is
the proportionality factor. The balanced chemical equation
gives the mole ratio between HCl and CaCO₃. The molar
mass relates amount and mass.
Plan: use the solution volume and concentration to
calculate the amount of HCl. Use the mole ratio to calculate
the amount of CaCO₃. Use the molar mass of to CaCO₃
calculate its mass.
Execute:
mol(HCl)= 10.0mL HCl x 1 L x 2mol HCl = 0.02 mol HCl
1000mL 1L HCl
mol(CaCO₃) = 0.02mol HCl x 1mol CaCO₃ = 0.01mol CaCO₃
2 mol HCl
m(CaCO₃) = 0.01 mol CaCO₃ x 100.0g CaCO₃ = 1g CaCO₃
1mol CaCO₃
Volume HCl Amount HCl Amount HCl Mass HCl
m(CaCO₃)
= 10.0mL HCl x 1 L x 2mol HCl x 1mol CaCO₃ x 100.0g CaCO₃
1000mL 1L HCl 2mol HCl 1mol CaCO₃
= 1g CaCO₃
Titrations in Aqueous Solutions
One important quantitative use of aqueous solution
reactions is to determine the unknown concentration of a
reactant in a solution. This is done with titration.
In titration, one solution is added to another
solution until just enough of the first solution has
been added to react with all of the second solution.
Equivalence point
- The point at which the amount of reactant in the
solution being added is just enough to react
completely with the reactant in the other solution.
At the equivalence point, the amounts of the two reactants
are exactly the stoichiometric ratio (mole ratio) given by the
balanced chemical equation for the reaction that occurs.
• This means that the mole ratio can be used to calculate
the amount of one reactant from the amount of another.
• Usually one of the solution in titration is a standard
solution.
Standard solution
– is a solution whose concentration is known
accurately.
From the concentration of the standard solution, the
concentration of the other solution can be determined by
calculations.
Example: Titration of a hydrogen peroxide solution,
H₂O₂ which is colorless, with potassium
permanganate solution KMnO₄, the dark purple
solution.
Balance Chemical equation:
KMnO₄(aq) + H₂O₂(aq) + H₂SO₄(aq)
MnSO₄(aq) + O₂(aq) + H₂O(aq) + K₂SO₄(aq)
2KMnO₄(aq) + 5H₂O₂(aq) + 3H₂SO₄(aq)
2MnSO₄(aq) + 5O₂(aq) + 8H₂O(aq) + K₂SO₄(aq)
Procedure:
1. KMnO₄ of known concentration is in a buret, ameasuring
device calibratd in divisions of 0.10mL. A 25.0mL sample of
H₂O₂ of unknown concentration is in the flask.
2. When KMnO₄ is added to the flask, the purple color is
visible until it mixes well the H₂O₂ and reacts.
3. As long as there is enough H₂O₂ to react with all of the
KMnO₄ added, the purple color disappears.
4. When all of the H₂O₂ has reacted, the next drop of
KMnO₄ remains unreacted and a trace of purple color
persists. This signals the end point of the titration.
The amount of KMnO₄ added is equivalent to the amount of H₂O₂
that has been in the flask. By equivalent, we mean that 2 mol KMnO₄
has been added for every 5mol H₂O₂ that was originally from the
flask. The reactants are the mole ratio given by the balanced
equation.
Titrations may involve redox reactions like permanganate-
peroxide reactions. They often involve acid-base reactions
as well. In most titrations none of the reactions is colored,
so some other method of finding the equivalence point is
needed.
Indicator – is a substance that can be added in a
titration to show when the equivalence point has
been reached.
Phenolphthalein is commonly used as the indicator in
strong acid-strong base titrations
Because it is colorless in acidic solutions and pink in basic
solutions.
End point – the point at which an indicator is seen to
change color.
Example: Acid-Base Titration
A student has an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide
Ca(OH)₂ that is approximately 0.10-M. she titrated a 50.0mL
sample of the calcium hydroxide solution with a
standardized solution of 0.300mL of HNO₃. To reach the end
point, 41.4mL of the HNO₃ solution was added. Determine
the molarity of the calcium hydroxide solution.
Balanced Chemical Equation:
2HNO₃(aq) + Ca(OH)₂(aq) Ca(NO₃)₂ (aq)+ 2H₂O(l)

Analyze: At the end point the reactants are in the mole

ratio given by the balanced equation for the reaction. We
know the volume and exact concentration of HNO₃
solution, and we know the volume of the Ca(OH)₂ solution.
Plan: From the volume and molarity of HNO₃, calculate the
amount of titrant reacted. From the mole ratio in the
equation, calculate the amount of Ca(OH)₂ reacted. Use the
volume of Ca(OH)₂ solution to calculate the concentration.
Execute:
Balanced Chemical Equation:
2HNO₃(aq) + Ca(OH)₂(aq) Ca(NO₃)₂ (aq)+ 2H₂O(l)
mol/n(HNO₃) = 0.0414L HNO₃ x 0.300 mol HNO₃
1.00L HNO solution
= 0.01242 / 1.242x10⁻²mol HNO₃
mol/n(Ca(OH)₂)= 0.01242 mol HNO₃ x 1mol Ca(OH)₂
2mol HNO₃
= 0.00621 / 6.21x10⁻³mol Ca(OH)₂
C(Ca(OH)₂) = 0.00621 mol Ca(OH)₂
0.0500L Ca(OH)₂ solution
= 0.124 mol/L or M Ca(OH)₂
Quiz:
Solution Concentration and Dilution:
Problem: A laboratory procedure calls for 50.0mL of 0.150-
M NaOH. You have available 100mL of 0.500mL-M NaOH.
What volume of the more concentrated solution should be
diluted to make the desired solution?
Stoichiometry in Aqueous Solution:
Problem: In a recent year, 1.2kg sodium hydroxide NaOH
was produced in the US by passing an electric current
through brine, an aqueous solution of sodium chloride.
2NaCl(aq) + 2H₂O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + Cl₂(g) + H₂(g)
Calculate the volume of brine needed to produce this mass
of NaOH. 1.0L brine contains 360g dissolved NaCl.
V(conc) = 1.2kg NaOH x 1000g x 1mol NaOH
1kg 40.0g NaOH
x 2mol NaCl x 58.4g NaCl x 1.0L brine
2mol NOH 1mol NaCl 360g NaCl
= 0.0000048 / 4.8x10⁻⁵ L brine
Titration in Aqueous Solution
Problem: In a titration, a 20.0mL sample of sulfuric acid,
H₂SO₄ was titrated to the end point with 41.3mL of 0.100-M
NaOH. Calculate the molarity of the H₂SO₄ solution.
Balanced Chemical Equation:
H₂SO₄(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na₂SO₄(aq) + 2H₂O(l)
n(NaOH) = 0.0413L x 0.100 mol/L
= 0.00413 / 4.13x10⁻³ mol NaOH
n(Na₂SO₄) = 0.00413 mol NaOH x 1mol H₂SO₄
2mol NaOH
= 0.002065 / 2.065x10⁻³ mol H₂SO₄
C(conc) = 0.002065mol HSO x 1000mL = 0.1033 mol/L
20.0mL 1L