Republic of the Philippines

UNIVERSITY OF EASTERN PHILIPPINES

Catarman, Northern Samar

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

Lesson 10 CHEMICAL BONDING

Summer 2016
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Lesson 10 CHEMICAL BONDING

Topics
 Chemical Symbol
 Chemical Formula
 Naming Compounds
 Binary Compounds Containing a Metal and a Nonmetal
 Binary Compounds Containing Two Nonmetals
 Binary Acids
 Hydroxides
 Ternary and Higher Compounds
 Ionic, Covalent and Metallic Bonds
 Bonds, Electronegativity, and Positions of Elements in the Periodic Table
 Chemical Formula of Ionic and Covalent Compounds
 Polar and Nonpolar Bonds
 Intermolecular Forces of Attraction between Molecules

Objectives
 Trace the historical background of chemical symbols
 Identify and memorize the symbols of common elements
 Recall and apply the rules in writing and naming different compounds
 Differentiate between empirical and molecular formulas
 Determine the empirical and molecular formulas of compounds.
 Name the elements given the chemical symbol
 Differentiate and describe the formation of ionic and covalent bonds
 Compare the properties of ionic and covalent compounds.
 Differentiate between polar and nonpolar molecules
 Classify molecules as polar or Nonpolar
 Identify and differentiate the intermolecular forces of attraction.
 Explain how these forces affect the compound’s interaction with other molecules

Introduction

 In the formation of compounds from atoms, we should learn first how to write names and formulas correctly for inorganic compounds. This
could only be possible if we will be able to use our knowledge of the electronic structure of atoms and the position of elements in the
periodic table.

Chemical Bond

 A chemical bond is defined as an attractive force existing between atoms or group of atoms.

 Atoms tend to become stable by assuming a noble gas configuration, either by the loss or gain of electrons (ionic bonding) or by sharing
electrons (covalent bonding) between atoms.

Ionic Bonding

 An electrovalent or ionic bond is formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another. This forms a positive ion
and a negative ion, which are then held together by an electrostatic attraction. Due to the nature of this type of bonding, the ions formed do
not form a molecule consisting of one or more positive ions and are one or more negative ions. Instead each positive ion is surrounded by
a negative ions and each negative ion is surrounded by positive ions. Thus the formula for an ionic compound, such as sodium chloride
(NaCl), does not indicate that one sodium ion combines with one chloride ion but only that the ratio of sodium to chloride ions is one Na+ to
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 one Cl-. Therefore, when speaking of ionic compounds the term formula unit is normally used, and the relative mass of this should be
referred to as formula weight. In Lesson 3 it was pointed out that the term molecular weight is often used for any type of compound.

 The electrostatic attraction between the individual ions is a rather weak interaction. In the crystal structure formed, however, each ion is
surrounded by several of the oppositely charged ions. This makes the bonding force in ionic compounds quite strong. Ionic compounds
have relatively high melting and boiling points due to this strong interaction.

 The formula of an ionic compound simply depends on the charge on the ions that make it up. Example, since the sodium ion has a 1+
charge and chloride has a 1- charge, the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. With calcium chloride, since the calcium ion has a 2+ charge,
the formula is CaCl2.

Formation of Ions

 In the discussion of oxidation states in Lesson 9, it was pointed out that in general the maximum oxidation state corresponds to the group
number. Also, for the nonmetals, the minimum oxidation state corresponds to the group number minus 8. In terms of both possible
oxidation states and formation of ions, the metals can be divided into three groups:
o Group IA, IIA, and aluminum
o Post transition metals
o Transition metals

 Of course there is a direct correlation between oxidation states and formation of monoatomic ions. The ion formed in all cases is simply
one of the possible oxidation states for the element being considered. It must be kept in mind, however, that a simple monoatomic ion
never has a charge greater than 3. Thus, only certain of the oxidation states can be actual ions. Also, you should recall, for monoatomic
ions, that metals only form positive ions and nonmetals only form negative ions.

 In forming monoatomic ions the nonmetals always gain enough electrons to attain a noble gas electron configuration. Thus, they always
be in their lowest possible oxidation state. Therefore, these atoms will always gain one, two or possibly three electrons in forming
monoatomic ions, such as Cl-, S2-, or N3-.

 In forming monoatomic ions, the metals can lose one, two or possibly three electrons to form cations with a charge of 1+, 2+, or 3+;
however, a charge of either 3+ or 3- is quite rare. Compounds in which the oxidation number is three or greater are almost covalent.

 In considering either oxidation states or ions formed, for the metals the only generalization that can be made is that electrons in s or p
subshells are always used in groups; that is, all the electrons in a particular s or p sublevel are used, never part of them. For example, the
IIA metals never lose just one electron to form a +1 ion; they always lose both of the electrons in the s orbital to give 2+.

 For the IA and IIA metals and aluminum, the ions formed always have a noble gas configuration; that is, these metals lose all their valence
electrons in forming cations. For metals following the transition metals, either just the p electrons (electrons in p orbitals) or the p and the s
are lost. Thus, bismuth (Bi) can from a Bi3+ ion; tin or lead can form 2+ ions (the 4+ oxidation state would be covalent) ; and thallium (Tl)
can form T+ or Tl3+ ions.

 For the transition metals, the situation is more complex when considering oxidation states as mentioned in Lesson 3. In the formation of
ions, however, the usual ones are 2+, where the two electrons in the s orbital are used, or 3+, where the s electrons and one d electron
are used. You must keep in mind when considering these that the s electrons are always in a higher energy level than the d (such as 4s
and 3 d) and are therefore lost first, even though it is not the order that they fill according to the Aufbau principle. Also, with the transition
metals, it is possible to use just one of the d electrons. This accounts for the variety of oxidation states, and possible ions, with these
elements.

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Principles in the Formation of Monoatomic Ions

 The limit to the charge on the monoatomic ions is 3.

 Metals only form positive ions (cations) and nonmetals only form negative ions (anions).

 Nonmetals always form anions with a noble gas electron configuration.

 Electrons in s and p orbitals are always used in groups – that is, all electrons in a given s or p sublevel are used.

 For transition metals, the ns electrons are always lost before the (n-1) d.

 Transition metals can lose one d electron, in addition to the s electrons.

Practice Problem 1
 Using the periodic table, explain, in terms of electron configurations, what monoatomic ions each of the following could form:
a. sulfur
b. magnesium
c. lead
d. iron

Solution
a. Since sulfur is a nonmetal, the only possible ion is S2-, in which the atom attains a noble gas electron configuration.
b. The Mg atom has an s2 configuration; thus, it can only lose these two valence electrons, to form Mg2+. It would never lose
just one of the s electrons.
c. Lead has an s2 p2 configuration; thus it can only form a Pb2+ ion. Lead can also exist in a 4+ oxidation state, where all four
valence electrons are used, but this would not be ionic.
d. Since Fe has a 3d6 4s2 configuration, it can only form either an Fe 2+ ion, which would be 3d5. It would never lose only one
of the s electrons and would never lose more than three electrons.

Covalent Bonding

 It was discussed in Lesson 3 that a covalent or a molecular compound was defined as a compound in which covalent bonds are formed
between the atoms. In forming the covalent bond, a pair of electrons are shared between the atoms, in a new type of orbital. Since the
covalent bond is formed from a pair of electrons, it is sometimes referred to as an electron pair bond.

 Important Considerations in Covalent Bonding

o The orbitals that the pair of electrons occupies
o How the electron pairs are arranged
o If there are multiple (two or three) bonds between two atoms
o If there are nonbonding pairs, or lone pairs, of electrons
o If the bond formed is polar or nonpolar.

 In many covalent compounds one electron comes from each atom, in forming the bond. There are some cases, however, where one atom
furnishes both electrons. A bond of this type is often referred to as a coordinate covalent bond. Once this bond is formed however, it is
no different than any other covalent bond.

 If two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms, the bond is called a double bond; if three pairs are shared, it is a triple bond. The
bond length, which is the distance between the two nuclei making up the bond, is shorter for a double bond than for a single and shorter

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 for a triple bond than for a double. Likewise, the bond strength, which is the amount of energy necessary to break the bond, is greatest for
a triple bond and least for a single bond. The maximum number of bonds that can form between two atoms is three.

 In forming these covalent bonds, the new orbital formed is sometimes referred to as a molecular orbital. In considering the formation of the
covalent bond by the overlap of orbitals, there are three things that should be remembered:
o The new orbital is formed by the overlap of atomic orbitals of different atoms
o Electrons occupy the new orbitals in pairs.
o Only valance electrons are used to form the bond. Inner electrons are bond too strongly to their own atom to be used in bond
formation.

 The hydrogen molecule, H2, is a simple example of a covalent substance. Each hydrogen atom has only one electron in the 1s orbital. By
joining together, the two atoms an each have a share of two electrons in their valence shell. When the covalent bond is formed between
the two hydrogen atoms, the pair of electrons is shared in the new molecular orbital that is formed.

 The figure below shows an electron dot notation to represent a pair of electrons shared between two atoms.

 The figure below shows the overlap of the 1s orbitals is represented, to show in more detail how the electrons are arranged.

1 e-
1p 1p 1p 1p
1 e- + 1 e-

1 e-

2 H atoms H2

 The figure below shows an electron cloud diagram is used to represent the overlap of electron clouds on the individual atoms to form a
new type of electron cloud that surrounds both nuclei.

H atom H atom H2
(1s orbital) (1s orbital) molecule

Polarity of Covalent Bonds

 When two atoms joined together by a covalent bond have different electronegativities, the electrons will be attracted more toward the atom
with the higher electronegativity. This means that the electron cloud is not equally distributed among the atoms. Thus one atom has a
somewhat negative character and the other one, a somewhat positive. This cause the bond to be a polar bond; that is, one part partially
positive and the other part is partially negative. The greater the difference in electronegativity between the two atoms, the more polar the

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 bond is. An electrovalent, or ionic, bond can be thought of as an extreme case of a polar covalent bond, where one atom has an
electronegativity so much greater than the other that the electron is completely removed from the one atom and transferred to the other.

 The polarity of a molecule depends not only on the polarity of the bond but also on the shape of the molecule. The figure below represents
a nonpolar covalent bond, a polar covalent bond, and an ionic or electrovalent bond.

Lewis Structures (Electron Dot Formulas)

 Lewis theory (Gilbert Newton Lewis, 1875-1946) focuses on the valence electrons, since the outermost electrons are the ones that are
highest in energy and farthest from the nucleus, and are therefore the ones that are most exposed to other atoms when bonds form.

 Lewis dot diagrams for elements are a handy way of picturing valence electrons, and especially, what electrons are available to be shared
in covalent bonds. The valence electrons are written as dots surrounding the symbol for the element: one dot is place on each side first,
and when all four positions are filled, the remaining dots are paired with one of the first set of dots, with a maximum of two dots placed on
each side. Lewis-dot diagrams of the atoms in row 2 of the periodic table are shown below:

 Unpaired electrons represent places where electrons can be gained in ionic compounds, or electrons that can be shared to form molecular
compounds. (The valence electrons of helium are better represented by two paired dots, since in all of the noble gases, the valence
electrons are in filled shells, and are unavailable for bonding.)

 Covalent bonds generally form when a nonmetal combines with another nonmetal. Both elements in the bond are attracted to the unpaired
valence electrons so strongly that neither can take the electron away from the other (unlike the case with ionic bonds), so the unpaired
valence electrons are shared by the two atoms, forming a covalent bond:

 The shared electrons act like they belong to both atoms in the bond, and they bind the two atoms together into a molecule. The shared
electrons are usually represented as a line (—) between the bonded atoms. (In Lewis structures, a line represents two electrons.)

 Atoms tend to form covalent bonds in such a way as to satisfy the octet rule, with every atom surrounded by eight electrons. (Hydrogen is
an exception, since it is in row 1 of the periodic table, and only has the 1s orbital available in the ground state, which can only hold two
electrons.)

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  The shared pairs of electrons are bonding pairs (represented by lines in the drawings above). The unshared pairs of electrons are lone
pairs or nonbonding pairs.

 All of the bonds shown so far have been single bonds, in which one pair of electrons is being shared. It is also possible to have double
bonds, in which two pairs of electrons are shared, and triple bonds, in which three pairs of electrons are shared:

 Multiple bonds are shorter and stronger than their corresponding single bond counterparts.

Rules for Writing Lewis Structures

1. Count the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or polyatomic ion. (For example, H2O has 2x1 + 6 = 8 valence electrons,
CCl4 has 4 + 4x7 = 32 valence electrons.) For anions, add one valence electron for each unit of negative charge; for cations, subtract one
electron for each unit of positive charge. (For example, NO3- has 5 + 3x6 + 1 = 24 valence electrons; NH4+ has 5 + 4+1 – 1 = 8 valence
electrons.)

2. Place the atoms relative to each other. For molecules of the formula AXn, place the atom with the lower group number in the center. If A
and X are in the same group, place the atom with the higher period number in the center. (This places the least electronegative atom in the
center.) H is NEVER UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCES a central atom.

3. Draw a single bond from each terminal atom to the central atom. Each bond uses two valence electrons.

4. Distribute the remaining valence electrons in pairs so that each atom obtains eight electrons (or 2 for H). Place the lone pairs on the
terminal atoms first , and place any remaining valence electrons on the central atom. The number of electrons in the final
structure must equal the number of valence electrons from Step 1.

5. If an atom still does not have an octet, move a lone pair from a terminal atom in between the terminal atom and the central atom to make a
double or triple bond. Use the formal charge as a guideline for placing multiple bonds:

Formal charge = valence – (½ bonding e-) – (lone pair e-)

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 1. The formal charge is the charge an atom would have if the bonding electrons were shared equally.
2. The sum of the formal charges must equal the charge on the species.
3. Smaller formal charges are better (more stable) than larger ones.
4. The number of atoms having formal charges should be minimized.
5. Like charges on adjacent atoms are not desirable.
6. A more negative formal charge should reside on a more electronegative atom.

Example Explanation
CH4 (methane)  8 valence electrons (4 + 4x1)

 Place the C in the center, and connect the four H’s to it:

 This uses up all of the valence electrons. The octet rule is satisfied
everywhere, and all of the atoms have formal charges of zero.
NH3 (ammonia)  8 valence electrons (5 + 3x1)

 Place the N in the center, and connect the three H’s to it:

 This uses up six of the eight valence electrons. The last two electrons cannot
go on the H’s (that would violate the octet rule for H), so they must go on the
N:

 All of the valence electrons have now been used up, the octet rule is satisfied
everywhere, and all of the atoms have formal charges of zero
H2O (water)  8 valence electrons (2x1 + 6)
 Place the O in the center, and connect the two H’s to it:

 This uses up four of the valence electrons. The remaining four valence
electrons cannot go on the H’s, so they must go on the O, in two pairs:

 All of the valence electrons have now been used up, the octet rule is satisfied
everywhere, and all of the atoms have formal charges of zero.
H3O+ (hydronium ion)  8 valence electrons (3x1 + 6 – 1)

 Place the O in the center, and connect the three H’s to it:

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  This uses up six of the valence electrons. The remaining two valence electrons
must go on the oxygen:

 All of the valence electrons have been used up, and the octet rule is satisfied
everywhere. The formal charge on the oxygen atom is 1+ (6 – ½·6 – 2):

HCN (hydrogen cyanide)  10 valence electrons (1 + 4 + 5)

 Place the C in the center, and connect the H and N to it:

 This uses up four of the valence electrons. The remaining six valence
electrons start out on the N:

 In the structure as shown, the octet rule is not satisfied on the C, and there is a
2+ formal charge on the C (4 – ½·4 – 0) and a 2- formal charge on the N (5 –
½·2 – 6):

 The octet rule can be satisfied if we move two pairs of electrons from the N in
between the C and the N, making a triple bond:

 The octet rule is now satisfied, and the formal charges are zero.
CO2 (carbon dioxide)  16 valence electrons (4 + 2x6)

 Place the C in the center, connect the two O’s to it, and place the remaining
valence electrons on the O’s:

 This uses up the sixteen valence electrons The octet rule is not satisfied on the
C, and there are lots of formal charges in the structure:

 The octet rule can be satisfied, and the formal charges diminished if we move
a pair of electrons from each oxygen atom in between the carbon and oxygen
atoms:

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CCl4 (carbon tetrachloride)
COCl2 (phosgene or
carbonyl chloride)
 The octet rule is satisfied everywhere, and all of the atoms have formal
charges of zero.
 32 valence electrons (4 + 4x7)
 Place the C in the center, and connect the four Cl’s to it:
 This uses up eight valence electrons The remaining 24 valence electrons are
placed in pairs on the Cl’s:
 Now, all of the valence electrons have been used up, the octet rule is satisfied
everywhere, and all of the atoms have formal charges of zero.
 24 valence electrons (4 + 6 + 2x7)
 Place the C in the center, and connect the O and the two Cl’s to it. (The
relative placement of the O and the Cl’s does not matter, since we are not yet
drawing a three-dimensional structure.) Place the remaining valence electrons
on the O and Cl atoms:
 The octet rule is not satisfied on the C; in order to get eight electrons around
the C, we must move a pair of electrons either from the O or one of the Cl’s to
make a double bond. Making a carbon-chlorine double bond would satisfy the
octet rule, but there would still be formal charges, and there would be a
positive formal charge on the strongly electronegative Cl atom (structure 2).
Making a carbon-oxygen double bond would also satisfy the octet rule, but all
of the formal charges would be zero, and that would be the better Lewis
structure (structure 3):
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Resonance Structures — When One Lewis Structure Isn’t Enough

Example Explanation
O3 (ozone)  18 valence electrons (3x6)

 Place one O in the center, and connect the other two O’s to it. Drawing a single bond
from the terminal O’s to the one in the center uses four electrons; 12 of the remaining
electrons go on the terminal O's, leaving one lone pair on the central O:

 We can satisfy the octet rule on the central O by making a double bond either between
the left O and the central one (2), or the right O and the center one (3):

 The question is, which one is the ―correct‖ Lewis structure?

 In this example, we can draw two Lewis structures that are energetically equivalent to each other — that is, they have the same types of bonds,
and the same types of formal charges on all of the structures. Both structures (2 and 3) must be used to represent the molecule’s structure.
The actual molecule is an average of structures 2 and3, which are called resonance structures. (Structure 1 is also a resonance structure
of 2 and 3, but since it has more formal charges, and does not satisfy the octet rule, it is a higher-energy resonance structure, and does not
contribute as much to our overall picture of the molecule.) Structures 2 and 3 in the example above are somewhat ―fictional‖ structures, in that
they imply that there are ―real‖ double bonds and single bonds in the structure for ozone; in reality, however, ozone has two oxygen-oxygen
bonds which are equal in length, and are halfway between the lengths of typical oxygen-oxygen single bonds and double bonds — effectively,
there are two ―one-and-a-half‖ bonds in ozone. The real molecule does not alternate back and forth between these two structures; it is
a hybrid of these two forms. (This is analogous to describing a real person as having the characteristics of two or more fictional characters —
the fictional characters don’t exist, but the real person does. Another analogy is to consider a mule: a mule is a cross or hybrid between a horse
and a donkey, but it doesn’t alternate between being a horse and a donkey.)

 The ozone molecule, then, is more correctly shown with both Lewis structures, with the two-headed resonance arrow ( ) between them:

 In these resonance structures, one of the electron pairs (and hence the negative charge) is ―spread out‖ or delocalized over the whole molecule.
In contrast, the lone pairs on the oxygen in water are localized — i.e., they’re stuck in one place. Resonance delocalization stabilizes a molecule
by spreading out charges, and often occurs when lone pairs (or positive charges) are located next to double bonds. Resonance plays a large
role in our understanding of structure and reactivity in organic chemistry. (A more accurate picture of bonding in molecules like this is found in
Molecular Orbital theory, but this theory is more advanced, and mathematically more complex topic, and will not be dealt with here.)

 As a general rule, when it’s possible to make a double bond in more than one location, and the resulting structures are energetically equivalent
to each other, each separate structure must be shown, separated from each other by resonance arrows.

Example Explanation
CO32- (carbonate ion)  24 valence electrons (4 + 3x6 + 2)

 Place the C in the center, with three lone pairs on each of the O’s:

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  We can satisfy the octet rule and make the formal charges smaller by making a
carbon-oxygen double bond. Since there are three energetically equivalent ways of
making a C=O, we draw each of the three possible structures, with a resonance
arrow between them:

 Once again, structure 1 is a resonance structure of 2, 3, and 4, but it is a higher

energy structure, and does not contribute as much to our picture of the molecule.
Since the double bond is spread out over three positions, the carbon-oxygen bonds
in carbonate are ―one-and-a-third‖ bonds.

Multi-Center Molecules

 Molecules with more than one central atoms are drawn similarly to the ones above. The octet rule and formal charges can be used as a
guideline in many cases to decide in which order to connect atoms.

Example Explanation
C2H6 (ethane)

C2H4 (ethylene)

CH3CH2OH (ethyl alcohol)

―Violations‖ of the Octet Rule

 A number of species appear to violate the octet rule by having fewer than eight electrons around the central atom, or by having more than eight
electrons around the central atom. Once again, the formal charge is a good guideline to use to decide whether a ―violation‖ of the octet rule is
acceptable.

 Electron deficient species, such as beryllium (Be), boron (B), and aluminum (Al) can have fewer than eight electrons around the central
atoms, but have zero formal charge on that atom. Molecules with electron deficient central atoms tend to be fairly reactive (many electron-
deficient species act as Lewis acids).

 Free radicals contain an odd number of valence electrons. As a result, one atom in the Lewis structure will have an odd number of
electrons, and will not have a complete octet in the valence shell. These species are extremely reactive. When drawing these compounds,
optimize the placement of bonds and the odd electron to minimize formal charges; there are often several possible resonance structures
than can be drawn.
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 Expanded valence shells are often found in nonmetals from period 3 or higher, such as sulfur, phosphorus, and chlorine. These species
can accommodate more than 8 electrons by shoving ―extra‖ electrons into empty d orbitals. For example, sulfur's valence shell contains 3s,
3p, and 3d orbitals (since sulfur is in row 3 of the periodic table, the valence shell is n=3); however, since there are only 16 electrons on a
neutral sulfur atom, the 3d orbitals are unoccupied. When sulfur forms a compound with another element, the empty 3d orbitals can
accommodate additional electrons. Note that period 2 elements CANNOT have more than eight electrons, since the n=2 shell has
no d orbitals to put ―extra‖ electrons in.

Example Explanation
BF3 (boron trifluoride)  24 valence electrons (3 + 3x7)

NO (nitrogen monoxide,
or nitric oxide)
 The octet rule is not satisfied on the B, but the formal charges are all zero. (In fact,
trying to make a boron-fluorine double bond would put a positive formal charge on
fluorine; since fluorine is highly electronegative, this is extremely unfavorable.)
 11 valence electrons (5 + 6)

 In this structure, the formal charges are all zero, but the octet rule is not satisfied on
the N. Since there are an odd number of electrons, there is no way to satisfy the
octet rule. Nitric oxide is a free radical, and is an extremely reactive compound. (In
the body, nitric oxide is a vasodilator, and is involved in the mechanism of action of
various neurotransmitters, as well as some heart and blood pressure medications
such as nitroglycerin and amyl nitrite)
PCl5 (phosphorus  40 valence electrons (5 + 5x7)
pentachloride)

 The octet rule is violated on the central P, but phosphorus is in the p-block of row 3
of the periodic table, and has empty d orbitals that can accommodate ―extra‖
electrons. Notice that the formal charge on the phosphorus atom is zero.
SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride)  48 valence electrons (6 + 6x7)

 The octet rule is violated on the central S, but sulfur is in the p-block of row 3 of the
periodic table, and has empty d orbitals that can accommodate ―extra‖ electrons.
Notice that the formal charge on the sulfur atom is zero.
SF4 (sulfur tetrafluoride)  48 valence electrons (6 + 6x7)

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  The octet rule is violated on the central S, but sulfur is in the p-block of row 3 of the
periodic table, and has empty d orbitals that can accommodate ―extra‖ electrons.
Notice that the formal charge on the sulfur atom is zero.
XeF4 (xenon tetrafluoride)  36 valence electrons (8 + 4x7)

 The octet rule is violated on the central Xe, but xenon is in the p-block of row 5 of the
periodic table, and has empty d orbitals that can accommodate ―extra‖ electrons.
Notice that the formal charge on the xenon atom is zero.
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)  32 valence electrons (2x1 + 6 + 4x6)

 Structures 1 and 2 are resonance structures of each other, but structure 2 is the
lower energy structure, even though it violates the octet rule. Sulfur can
accommodate more than eight electrons, and the formal charges in structure 2 are
all zero.

The Shapes of Molecules: The VSEPR Model

 Drawing a Lewis structure is the first steps towards predicting the three-dimensional shape of a molecule. A molecule’s shape strongly affects
its physical properties and the way it interacts with other molecules, and plays an important role in the way that biological molecules (proteins,
enzymes, DNA, etc.) interact with each other.

 The approximate shape of a molecule can be predicted using the Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) model, which depicts
electrons in bonds and lone pairs as ―electron groups‖ that repel one another and stay as far apart as possible:

1. Draw the Lewis structure for the molecule of interest and count the number of electron groups surrounding the central atom. Each of the
following constitutes an electron group:
o a single, double or triple bond (multiple bonds count as one electron group)
o a lone pair
o an unpaired electron

2. Predict the arrangement of electron groups around each atom by assuming that the groups are oriented in space as far away from one
another as possible.

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 3. The shapes of larger molecules having more than one central are a composite of the shapes of the atoms within the molecule, each of
which can be predicted using the VSEPR model.

Two Electron Groups

2 bonds, 0 lone pairs

linear
bond angles of 180°

Three Electron Groups

3 bonds, 0 lone pairs 2 bonds, 1 lone pair

trigonal planar bent
bond angles of 120° bond angles of < 120°

 Lone pairs take up more room than covalent bonds; this causes the other atoms to be squashed together slightly, decreasing the bond
angles by a few degrees.

Four Electron Groups

4 bonds, 0 lone pairs 3 bonds, 1 lone pair 2 bonds, 2 lone pairs

tetrahedral trigonal pyramidal bent
bond angles of 109.5° bond angles of < 109.5° bond angles of < 109.5°

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Five Electron Groups

5 bonds, 0 lone pairs
trigonal bipyramidal
bond angles of
120° (equatorial),
90° (axial)
4 bonds, 1 lone pair 3 bonds, 2 lone pairs 2 bonds, 3 lone pairs
seesaw T-shaped linear
bond angles of
<120° (equatorial), bond angles of < 90° bond angles of 180°
<90° (axial)

 The trigonal bipyramidal shape can be imagined as a group of three bonds in a trigonal planar arrangement separated by bond angles of
120° (theequatorial positions), with two more bonds at an angle of 90° to this plane (the axial positions):

 Lone pairs go in the equatorial positions, since they take up more room than covalent bonds. In the equatorial position, lone pairs are
~120° from two other bonds, while in the axial positions they would be 90° away from three other bonds.

Six Electron Groups

6 bonds, 0 lone pairs 5 bonds, 1 lone pair 4 bonds, 2 lone pairs

octahedral square pyramidal square planar
bond angles of 90° bond angles of < 90° bond angles of 90°

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 The Lewis structures of the previous examples can be used to predict the shapes around their central atoms:

Formula Lewis Structure Bonding Shape

4 bonds
CH4 tetrahedral
0 lone pairs

3 bonds
NH3 trigonal pyramidal
1 lone pair

2 bonds
H2O bent
2 lone pairs

3 bonds
H3O+ trigonal pyramidal
1 lone pair

2 bonds
HCN linear
0 lone pairs

2 bonds
CO2 linear
0 lone pairs

4 bonds
CCl4 tetrahedral
0 lone pairs

3 bonds
COCl2 trigonal planar
0 lone pairs

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 2 bonds
O3 bent*
1 lone pair

3 bonds
CO32- trigonal planar*
0 lone pairs

4 bonds
C2H6 tetrahedral
0 lone pairs

3 bonds
C2H4 trigonal planar
0 lone pairs

C: 4 bonds
0 lone pairs C: tetrahedral
CH3CH2OH
O: 2 bonds O: bent
2 lone pairs

3 bonds
BF3 trigonal planar
0 lone pairs

NO linear

5 bonds
PCl5 trigonal bipyramidal
0 lone pairs

6 bonds
SF6 octahedral
0 lone pairs

4 bonds
SF4 seesaw
1 lone pair

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 4 bonds
XeF4 square planar
2 lone pairs

S: 4 bonds
0 lone pairs S: tetrahedral
H2SO4
O: 2 bonds O: bent
2 lone pairs

 With Lewis structures involving resonance, it is irrelevant which structure is used to determine the shape, since they are all energetically
equivalent.

Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

 Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons in a covalent bond. Electronegativity is a
periodic property, and increases from bottom to top within a group and from left to right across a period:

Table 1. Periodic Trends in Electronegativity

193
 Table 2. Electronegativity Values (Pauling scale)

 When two atoms of the same electronegativity share electrons, the electrons are shared equally, and the bond is a nonpolar covalent
bond — there is a symmetrical distribution of electrons between the bonded atoms. (As an analogy, you can think of it as a game of tug-of-
war between two equally strong teams, in which the rope doesn’t move.) For example, when two chlorine atoms are joined by a covalent
bond, the electrons spend just as much time close to one chlorine atom as they do to the other; the resulting molecule is nonpolar
(indicated by the symmetrical electron cloud shown below):

 When two bonded atoms have a difference of greater than 2.0 electronegativity units (see Table 2), the bond is an ionic bond — one
atoms takes the electrons away from the other atom, producing cations and anions. For example Na has an electronegativity of 0.93, and
Cl is 3.16, a difference of 2.23 units. The Cl atom takes an electron away from the Na, producing a fully ionic bond:

 When two bonded atoms have a difference of between 0.4 and 2.0 electronegativity units (see Table 2), the electrons are
shared unequally, and the bond is a polar covalent bond — there is an unsymmetrical distribution of electrons between the bonded
atoms, because one atom in the bond is ―pulling‖ on the shared electrons harder than the other, but not hard enough to take the electrons
completely away. The more electronegative atom in the bond has a partial negative charge (-), because the electrons are pulled slightly
towards that atom, and the less electronegative atom has a partial positive charge (+), because the electrons are partly (but not
completely) pulled away from that atom. For example, in the HCl molecule, chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen by 0.96
electronegativity units. The shared electrons are pulled slightly closer to the chlorine atom, making the chlorine end of the molecule very
slightly negative (indicated in the figure below by the larger electron cloud around the Cl atom), while the hydrogen end of the molecule is
very slightly positive (indicated by the smaller electron cloud around the H atom), and the resulting molecule is polar:

194
  We say that the bond has a dipole — the electron cloud is polarized towards one end of the molecule. The degree of polarity in a covalent
bond depends on the electronegativity difference, EN, between the two bonded atoms:
o EN -00.4 = Nonpolar covalent bond
o EN 0.4 - 2.0 = Polar covalent bond
o EN > 2.0 = Ionic bond

Molecular Shape and Polarity

 In a diatomic molecule (X2 or XY), there is only one bond, and the polarity of that bond determines the polarity of the molecule: if the bond
is polar, the molecule is polar, and if the bond is nonpolar, the molecule is nonpolar.

 In molecules with more than one bond, both shape and bond polarity determine whether or not the molecule is polar. A
molecule must contain polar bonds in order for the molecule to be polar, but if the polar bonds are aligned exactly opposite to each other,
or if they are sufficiently symmetric, the bond polarities cancel out, making the molecule nonpolar. (Polarity is a vector quantity, so both the
magnitude and the direction must be taken into account.)

 For example, consider the Lewis dot structure for carbon dioxide. This is a linear molecule, containing two polar carbon-oxygen double
bonds. However, since the polar bonds are pointing exactly 180° away from each other, the bond polarities cancel out, and the molecule is
nonpolar. (As an analogy, you can think of this is being like a game of tug of war between two teams that are pulling on a rope equally
hard.)

 The water molecule also contains polar bonds, but since it is a bent molecule, the bonds are at an angle to each other of about 105°. They
do not cancel out because they are not pointing exactly towards each other, and there is an overall dipole going from the hydrogen end of
the molecule towards the oxygen end of the molecule; water is therefore a polar molecule:

195
 Molecules in which all of the atoms surrounding the central atom are the same tend to be nonpolar if there are no lone pairs on the central
atom. If some of the atoms surrounding the central atom are different, however, the molecule may be polar. For example, carbon
tetrachloride, CCl4, is nonpolar, but chloroform, CHCl3, and methyl chloride, CH3Cl are polar:

 The polarity of a molecule has a strong effect on its physical properties. Molecules which are more polar have stronger intermolecular
forces between them, and have, in general, higher boiling points (as well as other different physical properties).

 The table below shows whether the examples in the previous sections are polar or nonpolar. For species which have an overall charge, the
term ―charged‖ is used instead, since the terms ―polar‖ and ―nonpolar‖ do not really apply to charged species; charged species are, by
definition, essentially polar. Lone pairs on some outer atoms have been omitted for clarity.

3D Structure
Formula Lewis Structure Shape Explanation
Polarity

The C—H bond is nonpolar, since

CH4 C and H differ by only 0.35
electronegativity units.
tetrahedral
nonpolar

Since this molecule is not flat, the

N—H bonds are not pointing
directly at each other, and their
NH3
polarities do not cancel out. In
addition, there is a slight dipole in
trigonal pyramidal the direction of the lone pair.
polar

196
 Since this molecule is bent, the
O—H bonds are not pointing
H2O
directly at each other, and their
bent polarities do not cancel out.
polar

Since this species is charged, the

H3O+ terms ―polar‖ and ―nonpolar‖ are
irrelevant.
trigonal pyramidal
charged
Linear molecules are usually
nonpolar, but in this case, not all of
the atoms connected to the central
HCN
linear atom are the same. The C—N
polar bond is polar, and is not canceled
out by the nonpolar C—H bond.
The polar C=O bonds are oriented
180° away from each other. The
CO2 polarity of these bonds cancels
linear out, making the molecule
nonpolar nonpolar.

The polar C—Cl bonds are

oriented 109.5° away from each
CCl4 other. The polarity of these bonds
cancels out, making the molecule
tetrahedral nonpolar.
nonpolar

Trigonal planar molecules are

usually nonpolar, but in this case,
not all of the atoms connected to
the central atom are the same.
The bond polarities do not
COCl2
completely cancel out, and the
trigonal planar molecule is polar. (If there were
polar three O’s, or three Cl’s attached to
the central C, it would be
nonpolar.)

Bent molecules are always polar.

Although the oxygen-oxygen
O3 bonds are nonpolar, the lone pair
on the central O contributes some
bent polarity to the molecule.
polar

Since this species is charged, the

CO32- terms ―polar‖ and ―nonpolar‖ are
irrelevant.
trigonal planar
197
 charged

Both carbon atoms are tetrahedral;

since the C—H bonds and the C—
C2H6
C bond are nonpolar, the molecule
is nonpolar.
tetrahedral
nonpolar
Both carbon atoms are trigonal
planar; since the C—H bonds and
C2H4
the C—C bond are nonpolar, the
trigonal planar
molecule is nonpolar.
nonpolar

The C—C and C—H bonds do not

contribute to the polarity of the
molecule, but the C—O and O—H
CH3CH2OH
bonds are polar, the since the
C: tetrahedral shape around the O atom is bent,
O: bent the molecule must be polar.
polar

Since this molecule is planar, all

three polar B—F bonds are in the
BF3 same plane, oriented 120° away
from each other, making the
trigonal planar molecule nonpolar.
nonpolar

Since there is only one bond in

NO this molecular, and the bond is
linear polar, the molecule must be polar.
polar
The P—Cl bonds in the equatorial
positions on this molecule are
oriented 120° away from each
other, and their bond polarities
PCl5
cancel out. The P—Cl bonds in the
axial positions are 180° away from
trigonal bipyramidal each other, and their bond
nonpolar polarities cancel out as well.

The S—F bonds in this molecules

are all 90° away from each other,
SF6
and their bond polarities cancel
out.
octahedral
nonpolar
The S—F bonds in the axial
positions are 90° apart, and their
bond polarities cancel out. In the
SF4 equatorial positions, since one
position is taken up by a lone pair,
seesaw they do not cancel out, and the
polar molecule is polar.

198
 The Xe—F bonds are all oriented
90° away from each other, and
their bond polarities cancel out.
XeF4
The lone pairs are 180° away from
each other, and their slight
square planar polarities cancel out as well.
nonpolar

This molecule is polar because of

H2SO4 the bent H—O—S bonds which
S: tetrahedral are present in it.
O: bent
polar

Summary: Lewis Structures, VSEPR, and Molecular Polarity

Electro
n Lon Hybri
Bond
Groups Bond e AXmE Molecula d-
Electron-Group Shape Angles Polarity Appearance
on s2 Pair n3 r shape 5
izatio
central s n
atom1

nonpola
2 2 0 AX2 linear 180º Sp
r4

Linear

trigonal nonpola
3 0 AX3 120º sp2
planar r4

Trigonal planar 2 1 AX2E bent <120º polar sp2

tetrahedra nonpola
4 4 0 AX4 109.5º sp3
l r4

199
 Tetrahedral

trigonal
3 1 AX3E <109.5º polar sp3
pyramidal

2 2 AX2E2 bent <109.5º polar sp3

trigonal
120º eq nonpola
5 0 AX5 bipyramid sp3d
90º ax r4
al

<120º e
5 4 1 AX4E seesaw q polar sp3d
<90º ax

Trigonal Bipyramidal

3 2 AX3E2 T-shaped <90º polar sp3d

200
 nonpola
2 3 AX2E3 linear 180deg sp3d
r4

octahedra nonpola
6 0 AX6 90º sp3d2
l r4

6 square
5 1 AX5E <90º polar sp3d2
pyramidal

Octahedral

square nonpola
4 2 AX4E2 90º sp3d2
planar r4

1. ―Electron groups‖ include bonds, lone pairs, and odd (unpaired) electrons. A multiple bond (double bond or triple bond) counts as one electron
group.
2. A multiple bond (double bond or triple bond) counts as one bond in the VSEPR model.
3. A = central atom, X = surrounding atoms, E = lone pairs
4. Molecules with this shape are nonpolar when all of the atoms connected to the central atom are the same. If the atoms connected to the central
atom are different from each other, the molecular polarity needs to be considered on a case-by-case basis.
5. Since electrons in lone pairs take up more room than electrons in covalent bonds, when lone pairs are present the bond angles are ―squashed‖
slightly compared to the basic structure without lone pairs.

Chemical Formula

 Chemical formulas such as MgSO4 can be divided into empirical formula, molecular formula, and structural formula. The chemical symbols
of elements in the chemical formula represent the elements present in the compound. The subscript numbers represent mole proportions
of the preceding elements. If no number is written, it means the subscript is 1.
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The Writing of Formulas
 Compounds formula can be written in several forms. In this area we will discuss how to write the formula of a simple binary ionic
compound (compound composed of metal and a nonmetal) whose name is known. The metal acts the cation (positively-charged ion) while
the nonmetal forms the anion (negatively-charged ion). The first part of the name of an inorganic compound is the first part of the formula.

The Naming of Compounds: Nomenclature

Identifying a Compound as Ionic or Molecular

 In naming compounds, you have to decide first whether you are looking at an ionic compound or a molecular compound. We know that
metals combined with nonmetals will produce compounds that are ionic. Nonmetals combined with nonmetals will produce compounds
that are molecular.

 For example: MgCl2 would be ionic because it has the chloride ion which is a nonmetal combined with magnesium which is a metal. Metals
combined with nonmetals produce ionic compounds.

Binary Compounds Containing a Metal and a Nonmetal

 A binary compound is made up of two different elements. There can be one of each element such as in NaCl or KF. There can also be
several of each element such as Na2O or AlBr3.

 The metal is always written first, in both the name and the formula. As with all other binary compounds, the nonmetal takes an –ide ending.
There are two types what we must consider:
o metals with fixed (only one) oxidation number and
o those with variable (more than one) oxidation number.

Metals with Fixed Oxidation Numbers

 The metals with fixed (constant) oxidation numbers are the IA and IIA metals, plus Al, ZN, and Ag. (Compounds of silver are known in
which the Ag is 2+ or 3+, but 1+ is by far the most common)

 All other metals have variable oxidation numbers. The names of compounds in which the metal has a fixed oxidation number are simply
written as in the following examples (note that no prefixes are used):

Formula Name
NaCl Sodium chloride
Na2S Sodium sulfide
AgBr Silver bromide
Al2O3 Aluminum oxide
CaH2 Calcium hydride
Mg3N2 Magnesium nitride
Formula Writing of Binary Compounds
Charge – Crossing Technique
Rules to follow:
a. The total positive charges must equal the total negative charges.
b. Do not change the charges given to you.
c. Adjust the subscripts to equalize the charges.

Suppose you want to write the formula for the common table salt, sodium chloride.

Write down the Ca2+ and O2+ right next to each other:
𝐶𝑎 2+ 𝑂2−
Move the positive charge (dropping the sign) to the subscript position of the anion:

202
 𝐶𝑎2+ 𝑂2−
Move the negative charge (dropping the sign) to the subscript position of the cation:
𝐶𝑎2+ 𝑂2−
The result is:
𝐶𝑎2 𝑂2
Since subscripts of one are not written but are understood to be present, the final answer is:
𝐶𝑎𝑂

Practice Problem 2

Write the formula for aluminum oxide.

Write down the Al3+ and O2- right next to each other:
𝐴𝑙 3+ 𝑂2−
Move the positive charge (dropping the sign) to the subscript position of the anion:
𝐴𝑙 3+ 𝑂2−

Move the negative charge (dropping the sign) to the subscript position of the cation:
𝐴𝑙 3+ 𝑂2−

This results to:

𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3
Exercise 1
 Write the correct formula of the following compounds:
1. hydrogen chloride (you must know that this is the common muriatic acid for cleaning purposes)
2. calcium fluoride (do you still remember the anti tartar ingredient of your toothpaste?)
3. sodium oxide (the substance behind the cleansing principle of your laundry detergent)

 Points to remember about naming a compound from its formula

o The order for names in a binary compound is first the cation, then the anion. The element with the highest electronegativity is
written and named last.
o Use the name of cation directly from the periodic table.
o The name of the anion will be made from the root of the element's name plus the suffix ―-ide.‖ Note that all binary compounds
take an –ide ending on the last element named.

Table of Electronegativities of Elements

Element Electronegativity Element Electronegativity
Fluorine 4.0 Cobalt 1.9
Oxygen 3.5 Copper 1.9
Chlorine 3.0 Nickel 1.9
Nitrogen 3.0 Iron 1.8
Bromine 2.8 Silicon 1.8

203
 Carbon 2.5 Aluminum 1.5
Sulfur 2.5 Magnesium 1.2
Hydrogen 2.1 Calcium 1.0
Phosphorus 2.1 Lithium 1.0
boron 2.0 Sodium 0.9
Potassium 0.8

Example: Write the name of this formula: H2S

Steps Results
1 Look at the first element and name it Hydrogen
2 of its full name (which is sulf-) plus the ending ―-ide.‖ Sulfide

These two steps give the full name of H2S. Notice that the presence of the subscript is ignored.

Metals with Variable Oxidation Numbers

 Except for IA metals, IIA metals, aluminum, zinc and silver, all metals have variable oxidation numbers. In a binary compounds of a metal
of this type with a nonmetal, the oxidation number of the metal must be indicated in the name. there are two methods of doing this what we
shall consider here.

o In the classical system, an –ic ending is used on the name of metal for the highest oxidation state and an –ous ending is used
for the lowest.
 Also the Latin name is used for iron (ferric and ferrous), copper (Cupric and cuprous), tin (stannic and stannous), and
lead (plumbic and plumbous).
 There are several disadvantages to this system. For example, the name does not give any indication of the actual
oxidation state, only if it is the higher or lower. Also, for metals with more than two possible oxidation states, it cannot
be used. Unfortunately, this system is still used and thus you must become familiar with it.

o The newer stock system, or Roman numeral system, is more accurate. In this system, the actual oxidation number of the metal is
indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses immediately following the name of the metal.

Metals Classical System Stock or Roman Numeral System

Cu+ Cuprous Copper (I)
Cu2+ Cupric Cooper (II)
Fe2+ Ferrous Iron (II)
Fe3+ Ferric Iron (III)
Sn2+ Stannous Tin (II)
Sn4+ Stannic Tin (IV)
Pb2+ Plumbous Lead II)
Pb4+ Plumbic Lead (IV)

 As you may have noticed in the preceding examples, the –ous ending and –ic ending can become confusing. For
example, in copper the –ous ending represents the 1+ oxidation number, whereas in iron it is 2+. Also, Cu2+ is cupric,
but if Fe2+ is ferrous.

o The third method that can be used for compounds with variable oxidation numbers is to use the Greek prefixes as discussed in
the earlier part of this lesson. This is not recommended but is sometimes used. For example, PbO2 could be named as lead
dioxide.

 In writing formulas from names, always remember that the oxidation number of each element is used to determine how many of each atom
there must be in the formula.

o This is how it is done:

204
  Determine what oxidation number is used based on the given, Cu2+, Cu1+. Write down the Cu2+and Cl1- right next to
each other:

𝐶𝑢2+ 𝐶𝑙1−
 Move the positive charge (dropping the sign) to the subscript position of the anion:
𝐶𝑢2+ 𝐶𝑙1−
 Move the negative charge (dropping the sign) to the subscript position of the cation:
𝐶𝑢2+ 𝐶𝑙1−
 The result is:
𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2
 Since subscripts of one are not written but are understood to be present, the final answer is:
𝐶𝑎𝑂
 The name is: Copper (II) chloride or cupric chloride

Metals with Variable Oxidation Numbers

Formula Name
CuCl2 Copper (II) chloride or cupric chloride
FeO Iron (II) oxide or ferrous oxide
SnF4 Tin (IV) fluoride or stannic fluoride
PbS Lead (II) sulfide or plumbous sulfide
HgO Mercury (II) oxide or mercuric oxide

Name Formula
Iron (III) oxide Fe2O3
Lead (IV) oxide PbO2
Cuprous chloride CuCl
Stannous fluoride SnF2

Exercise 2
A. Name the following (for those metals with variable oxidation states, give both the classical and stock system names):
1. MgCl 2
2. SnCl 4
3. HgBr2
4. PbS2
5. FeO
6. CaBr2
7. PbBr4
8. AlCl3
9. SnO2
10. HgO
11. Al2S3
12. AuCl3
13. Fe(NO3)3
14. CaCl2
15. AgNO3
B. Write the correct formula for each of the following:

205
 1. magnesium bromide
2. aluminum oxide
3. ferrous bromide
4. lead (II) sulfide
5. stannic oxide
6. potassium sulfide
7. iron (III) oxide
8. zinc bromide
9. stannous chloride
10. ferric oxide

Binary Compounds Containing Two Nonmetals

 When two nonmetals combine to form only one compound, the compounds is simply named by writing the name of the second element
with an –ide ending. Compounds of this type contain hydrogen with another nonmetal. For example HBr is hydrogen bromide and H2S is
hydrogen sulfide. For other binary compounds of this type, where more than one binary compound can be formed from two elements, the
Greek prefixes, as listed below, are used with each element.

Greek Prefixes
Greek Prefix Number Greek Prefix Number
mono- 1 hexa- 6
di- 2 hepta- 7
tri- 3 octa- 8
tetra- 4 nona- 9
penta- 5 deca- 10

 Example: Write the name of this formula: CO2

Steps Results
1 Look at the first element and name it Carbon
2 of its full name (which is ox-) plus the ending ―-ide‖ and the Greek prefix mono Oxide

o These two steps give the full name of CO2. Notice that the presence of the subscript is NOT ignored because the compound is
composed of two nonmetals.

 Some binary compounds of two nonmetals have common names, such as water for H2O and ammonia for NH3 (ammonia is an exception
to the general rule that the most positive part is written first.

Exercise 2
A. Name the following:
1. SO2
2. N2O3
3. PBr5
4. SO3
5. P2O5
B. Write the correct formula for each of the following:
1. phosphorus tribromide
2. diphosphorus pentoxide
3. sulfur trioxide
4. dinitrogen trioxide
5. sulfur dioxide

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Compounds Named Like Binary Compounds

 There are few other compounds that take an –ide ending, like binary compounds.

Name Formula Example

Ammonium compounds 𝑁𝐻4+ 𝑁𝐻4+ ion acts like a simple metal ion ammonium sulfide (𝑁𝐻4 )2 𝑆
Cyanides 𝐶𝑁 − 𝐶𝑁 − ion acts like a simple nonmetal Iron (III) cyanide or ferrous cyanide
anion 𝐹𝑒(𝐶𝑁)2
Hydroxides 𝑂𝐻 − This compose a special type of compound which will be discussed in Acids and
Bases; the hydroxide has the –ide ending of binary compounds

Exercise 3
A. Name the following:
1. NH 4Cl
2. Ca(CN) 2
3. NaCN
4. (NH 4) 2S
B. Write the correct formula for each of the following:
1. magnesium cyanide
2. ammonium sulfide
3. ammonium bromide
4. ferrous cyanide

Binary Acids

 Substances that produce H+ ion in solution are acids. This was discussed in Lesson %(Physical Properties of Solutions). A binary
compound composed of hydrogen with a more electronegative element can act as a binary acid, when in water solution. For example
when the gas hydrogen chloride (HCl) is placed in water solution, it forms hydrochloric acid. For acids of this type, the prefix hydro- is
added, and the –ide ending is replaced by –ic acid.

Compound Name Name of Acid Formed in Water Solution

HBr Hydrogen bromide Hydrobromic acid
H2S Hydrogen sulfide Hydrosulfuric acid
HCN Hydrogen cyanide Hydrocyanic acid

Exercise 4
A. Name the following as acids:
1. HCl
2. H 2S
3. HBr
4. HCN
B. Write the correct formula for each of the following:
1. hydrobromic acid
2. hydrocyanic acid
3. hydroiodic acid
4. hydrosulfuric acid

Hydroxides

 These are inorganic compounds that contain the –OH group. They are commonly called bases, alkalies, or just hydroxides. To write the
correct formulas for these compounds it must be remembered that the –OH group has a -1 charge.

207
 Name Compound
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Iron (III) hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Stannic hydroxide Sn(OH)4

 Remember that for metals with variable oxidation numbers we must indicate the oxidation number in the name.

Exercise 5
A. Name the following (for those metals with variable oxidation states, give both the classical and stock system names):
1. Mg(OH)2
2. Fe(OH)3
3. Zn(OH)2
4. Sn(OH)4
5. Ca(OH)2
6. Fe(OH)2
7. Al(OH)3
8. Pb(OH)4
B. Write the correct formula for each of the following:
1. barium hydroxide
2. aluminum hydroxide
3. mercury (I) hydroxide
4. lead (I) hydroxide
5. lithium hydroxide
6. zinc hydroxide
7. chromium (III) hydroxide
8. stannous hydroxide

Ternary Acids and Their Salts

 Acids that contain more than two elements always contain oxygen, along with the hydrogen, and are thus often referred to as oxyacids.
The names and formulas of the more common ones are listed below and must be memorized.

Acid Oxyanion Example of Salt

Formula Name Formula Name Formula Name
H2SO3 Sulfurous acid 𝑆𝑂32− Sulfite Na2SO3 Sodium sulfite
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid 𝑆𝑂42− Sulfate Fe SO4 Iron (II) sulfate
HNO2 Nitrous acid 𝑁𝑂2− Nitrite Ca(NO2)2 Calcium nitrite
HNO3 Nitric acid 𝑁𝑂3− Nitrate NH4NO3 Ammonium nitrate
H2CO3 Carbonic acid 𝐶𝑂32− Carbonate Al2(CO3)2 Aluminum carbonate
H3PO3 Phosphorous acid 𝑃𝑂33− Phosphite Mg3(PO3)2 Magnesium phosphate
H3PO4 Phosphoric acid 𝑃𝑂43− Phosphate Sn3(PO4)2 Tin (II) phosphate or stannous phosphate
HClO Hypochlorous acid* 𝐶𝑙𝑂 − Hypochlorite Ca(ClO)2 Calcium hypochlorite
HClO2 Chlorous acid* 𝐶𝑙𝑂2− Chlorite NaClO2 Sodium chlorite
HClO3 Chloric acid* 𝐶𝑙𝑂3− Chlorate Al(ClO3)3 Aluminum chlorate
HClO4 Perchloric acid* Perchlorate KClO4 Potassium perchlorate
𝐶𝑙𝑂4−

*other halogens form compounds analogous to these last for examples

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  A salt is a compound formed when one or more of the hydrogen ions of an acid is replaced by a cation (metal or positive polyatomic ion) or
when one or more of the hydroxide ions of a base is replaced by an anion (nonmetal or negative polyatomic ion).

 Binary compounds of metal cations with nonmetal anions and the ternary compounds of metal cations or ammonium ions with negative
polyatomic ions are examples of salts.

 Therefore, the names and formulas of lasts, other than the binary ones already considered, are directly related to the names and formulas
of the oxyacids. Once you have learned the names and formulas of the oxyacids, you can determine from them the oxyanions and salts,
using the following general rules:

o Since the hydrogen ion (H+) has a 1+ charge, the charge on the oxyanion is equal to the number of hydrogen ions that can be
produced by a molecule of the acid.
o An –ous acid always forms an –ite oxyanion or salt; an –ic acid always forms an –ate ion or salt.
 Applying these rules, we can see that since sulfuric acid is H2SO4, the sulfate ion is 𝑆𝑂42− or since HNO2 is nitrous acid, 𝑁𝑂2− is the nitrite
ion and so on.

 Notice also from the table above, that where there are two compounds with the same central atom, the one in the lower oxidation state is
the –ous acid and the higher is the –ic acid. For more than two (e.g., HClO, HClO2, HClO3, HClO4) the general rules are always followed if
there are four acids of this type with different oxidation states, such as the series listed in the table above (one common exception to these
rules is H2CO3 –carbonic acid.)

General Rules for Determining Names of Oxyacids and Oxyanions from oxidation States
Oxidation State of Central Atom Name of Acid Name of Oxyanion
1 or 2 Hypo- -ous Hypo- -ite
3 or 4 -ous - ite
5 or 6 Per- -ic Per- -ate
7 or 8 -ic -ate

Exercise 6
C. Name the following (for those metals with variable oxidation states, give both the classical and stock system names):
1. H2SO3 (in water)
2. Ca3(PO4)2
3. H3PO3 (in water)
4. Mg(ClO3)2
5. NH4NO2
6. HBrO (in water)
7. Pb(SO4)2
8. Sn(IO3)2
9. HNO3(in water)
10. Al2(CO3)3
11. FeCO3
12. HClO2 (in water)
13. FeSO4
14. NH4NO3
15. HClO3 (in water)
16. Sn3(PO4)2
17. Ca(ClO2)2
18. HBrO3 (in water)
19. Sn(SO3)2
20. Pb(IO2) 2
D. Write the correct formula for each of the following:
1. calcium nitrate
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 2. iron (III) sulfate
3. sulfurous acid
4. mercuric phosphite
5. magnesium chlorate
6. plumbic carbonate
7. ammonium phosphate
8. tin (II) sulfite
9. ferrous iodite
10. perbromic acid
11. sodium sulfate
12. hypochlorous acid
13. magnesium nitrite
14. cuprous sulfate
15. ammonium chlorate
16. chromium (III) carbonate
17. zinc phosphate
18. lead (IV) sulfite
19. iodic acid
20. stannous bromate

Acid Salts

 Acid salts are salts of polyprotic acids (more than one replaceable H+ ion) in which one or more hydrogen atoms remain in the salt. For
example, if only one of the H+ ions in H2SO4 is replaced, an 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− ion remains. In naming these, hydrogen is added to the name of the
oxyanion. For example, 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− is named hydrogen sulfate.

 Salts of this type are sometimes named using the prefix bi or acid in place of hydrogen. For example, 𝐻𝐶𝑂3− is often called bicarbonate.
The use of hydrogen is preferred, however. For example, NaHCO3 is sodium hydrogen carbonate or sodium bicarbonate or sodium acid
carbonate; Ca(HSO4)2 is calcium hydrogen sulfate or calcium bisulfate or calcium acid sulfate.

 In the case of acids like H3PO4 where there are more than two H+ ions, dihydrogen is used for the ion that contains two hydrogens; that is,
𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4− is called dihydrogen phosphate. For example, 𝑁𝑎2 𝐻𝑃𝑂4 is sodium hydrogen phosphate (sometimes called disodium hydrogen
phosphate), and 𝑁𝑎𝐻2 𝑃𝑂4 is sodium dihydrogen phosphate.

Types of Salts
Formula Name
CaSO4 Calcium sulfate (it is not necessary to indicate the oxidation state for calcium)
Fe2(CO3)3 Iron (III) carbonate or ferric carbonate (iron must be 3+ in this case since carbonate is 2-).
Ca(BrO4)2 Calcium perbromate (since perchlorate is 𝐶𝑙𝑂4− , perbromate is 𝐵𝑟𝑂4− groups since Ca is 2+; it is not
necessary to indicate that there are two perbromate groups – just like CaCl2 is calcium chloride and not
dichloride.
Pb3(PO4)2 Lead (II) phosphate (the II refers to the oxidation state of Pb; since the charge on the phosphate is 3-, because
phosphoric acid is H3PO4, there must be three lead ions for each two phosphate ions)
Ba(H2PO4)2 Barium dihydrogen phosphate (the dihydrogen phosphate refers to the hydrogen atoms in the group, not to the
fact that there are two of these groups – for example, NaH2PO4 is sodium dihydrogen phosphate)
Calcium chlorite Ca(ClO2)2 (since Ca is 2+ and the chlorite ion is 1-, there must be two chlorites for each Ca)
Stannic iodate Sn(IO3)4 (tin, in this case, is in the highest oxidation state 4+; since chlorate is 𝐶𝑙𝑂3−, iodate is 𝐼𝑂3−
Magnesium hydrogen sulfate Mg(HSO4)2 (since sulfuric acid is H2SO4, hydrogen sulfate is 𝐻𝑆𝑂4− ; therefore, since Mg is 2+ (group IIA),
there must be two of the hydrogen sulfate groups for each Mg2+ ion)

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Exercise 7
A. Name the following:
1. Al(HSO4)3
2. KH2PO4
3. Cu(HCO3)2
4. CaHPO3
5. NH4HSO3
6. Ca(HCO3)2
7. Fe(HSO4) 2
8. NaH2PO4
9. Zn(HSO3)2
10. (NH4)2HPO3
B. Write the correct formula for each of the following:
1. sodium hydrogen sulfite
2. ferrous hydrogen carbonate
3. calcium dihydrogen phosphate
4. potassium hydrogen phosphate
5. ammonium hydrogen phosphite
6. potassium hydrogen sulfate
7. lead (II) hydrogen carbonate
8. aluminum hydrogen phosphate
9. magnesium dihydrogen phosphate
10. ammonium hydrogen sulfite

Assessment

Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer. Write the chosen letter on a separate sheet of paper.
1. What is the correct symbol for cuprum?
a. C c. Cp
b. Cu d. Cr

2. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?

a. Argentum c. Calcium
b. Aurum d. Kalium

3. Which of the following elements is the youngest?

a. argon c. helium
b. carbon d. hydrogen

4. What is the English name of stibium?

a. antimony c. lead
b. arsenic d. tin

5. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?

a. carbon c. nitrogen
b. hydrogen d. oxygen

6. Which of the following is a binary ionic compound?

a. CO2 c. CaCl2
b. CCl4 d. CaCO3

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7. Which compound is commonly called laughing gas?
a. N2O c. N2O3
b. NO2 d. NO

8. Which of the following substances is used to neutralize acid in the stomach that causes hyperacidity?
a. MgCO3 c. Mg(OH)2
b. MgCl2 d. MgO
9. What is the common suffix used in naming binary inorganic compounds?
a. ∼ ate c. ∼ ic
b. ∼ ite d. ∼ ide

10. What polyatomic ion is commonly found in basic compounds?

a. Acetate c. Cyanide
b. Bicarbonate d. Hydroxide

11. Which of the following does NOT belong to the group?

a. Al2O3 c. AlCl3
b. AlPO4 d. AlP

12. What is the best way of naming 𝐶2 𝑂42− ?

a. Oxalate c. carbon oxide
b. dicarbon tetroxide d. carbon dioxide

13. Which of the following is also known as hydrosulfuric acid?

a. H2S c. H2SO4
b. H2SO3 d. H2S2O3

For numbers 14 to 15, refer to the following choices:

a. CaSO4 c. MgSO4
b. CuSO4 d. BaSO4

14. What compound is also known as gypsum? A

15. What compound is also known as Epsom salt? C

16. What is formed when an atom loses electron/s?

a. anion c. neutral atom
b. cation d. none of the above
17. What do you call the electrons which are transferred or shared by an atom?
a. valence electrons c. excited electrons
b. inner- shelled electrons d. electrons in the ground state
18. Which is a stronger bond?
a. covalent c. single bond
b. ionic d. double bond
19. What rule or law is followed by atoms in attaining eight electrons in the outermost shell?
a. Law of definite proportion c. Law of Multiple proportion
b. Law of conservation of matter d. Octet rule
20. Which compound has the higher boiling point/melting point?
a. alcohol c. oil
b. table salt d. wax
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 21. Which of the following pairs will form polar covalent bond?
a. Cl and Cl
b. H and Cl
c. H and H
22. Where will the partial positive end be found on the bond that will be formed in number 1?
a. H
b. Cl
23. Which of the following pairs will be soluble with one another?
a. Br2 and CCl4
b. Oil and water
c. H2O and CCl4
For numbers 24 and 25, refer to the following choices:
a. polar covalent
b. nonpolar covalent
c. none of the above
24. What kind of bond is formed by two identical atoms? b
25. It is the kind of bond formed by atoms with different electronegativities. a
26. The boiling point of CH4 is much lower than that of HF. This is explained by the
a. hydrogen bonding in HF
b. ion-dipole interaction in CH4
c. polarity of CH4
27. What causes the high surface tension of water?
a. hydrogen bonding
b. dipole-dipole
c. dispersion forces
28. Which is most likely to have the strongest intermolecular forces?
a. solid
b. liquid
c. gas
For nos. 29 and 30, refer to the following choices:
a. hydrogen bond
b. dipole-dipole
c. dispersion forces
What intermolecular force of attraction is present in each of the following?
29. Water A
30. carbon dioxide C

31. Solute is most likely to be highly soluble in a solvent if the solute is _____ and the
solvent is ______.
a. ionic, polar c. polar, polar
b. nonpolar, ionic d. nonpolar, ionic
32. Molecular iodine would be most soluble in
a. Water
b. Carbon tetrachloride
c. Ethanol and water
33. The concept of ―like dissolves like‖ is illustrated by which of the following?
a. NaCl (s) is more soluble in CCl4 than in water.
b. I2 (s) is more soluble in CCl4 than in water.
c. CCl4 is soluble in water
34. Which one of the following molecules would be most polar?
a. H2
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 b. HF
c. HCl
35. Which of the following bond types is the strongest?
a. Polar
b. Nonpolar
c. Ionic
For numbers 6-8, refer to the following choices:
a. covalent bond
b. ionic bond
36. The bond formed by Ca2+ and O2+ B
37. The bond formed by two oxygen atoms A
38. The bond present in table salt B
For numbers 9 to 10, refer to the following:
a. BaCl2
b. CO2
c. NH3
39. Which of the given compounds has the highest boiling point? A
40. Which one will not dissolve in a polar solvent? B

41. What is a chemical compound?

a. The combination of elements.
b. The combination of two or more different elements.
c. The combination of two or more similar elements.
42. How many atoms of oxygen are in the formula H2SO4?
a. 2 b. 4 c. 8
43. How many atoms of oxygen are in the formula C3H5(NO3)3?
a. 3 b. 6 c. 9
44. What is the correct formula of calcium sulfide?
a. CaS4 b. Ca2S2 c. CaS
45. The algebraic sum of all the oxidation numbers of elements in a compound is
a. 2 b. 1 c. 0
46. Alkali metals have an oxidation number of
a. +1 b. +2 c. –1
47. Caffeine, a primary stimulant in coffee and tea, has a molecular formula of C8H10N4O2.
Which of the following represents its empirical formula?
a. C2H5N2O b. C4H5N2O c. C8H10N4O2
48. What is the empirical formula of a compound that contains K2C2O4?
a. K2CO3 b. KCO2 c. K(CO3)2
49. What is the molecular formula of the compound with an empirical formula of CH2, and molar mass = 84 g/mol?
a. C3H6 b. C6H12 c. C9H18
50. What is the molecular formulas of Ibuprofen if its empirical formula is (C7H9O) and its mass is 109 with a molar mass of 218 g/mol?
a. C13H18O2 b. C12H18O2 c. C14H18O2

Matching Type. Match the term/discoverer in column B with its definition/discovery in column A. Write the letter of your choice on a separate sheet.

Column A Column B
1. shorthand representation of elements a. America
2. simplest formula b. Argentina
3. the number written after the symbol of the element c. Covalent

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 4. English name for natrium d. Cuprum
5. shorthand representation of compounds e. Empirical
6. the inventor of the element oxygen f. Ferrum
7. the country where the element silver originated from g. Formula
8. the Latin name of the element iron h. H2O
9. a type of compound composed of metallic and nonmetallic elements i. H2O2
10. the molecular formula of the compound aqua oxigenada j. Ionic
k. Lavoisier
l. Molecular
m. Priestly
n. Sodium
o. Subscript
p. Symbols

References

 Mendoza, Estrella E. Chemistry. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. 2003.

 Project EASE Modules. Department of Education

 Redmore, Fred H. (1980) Fundamentals of Chemistry. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

 Martin S. Silberberg, Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change, 2nd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2000, p. 374-384.

 Nivaldo J. Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 1st ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008, p. 362-421.

 Empirical Formula. Accessed last May 11, 2016. www.google.com: http://pages.towson.edu/ladon/empiric.html

 Lewis Structures and the Shapes of Molecules. Accessed last May 11, 2016. www.google.com:
https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/general/shapes/00_lewis.htm#LewisStructures

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