New Senior Secondary

PHYSICS
Electricity and Magnetism

Section 2

Electric Circuits and domestic electricity (I)

Name: ______________________________
2.1 Electric Current
• Electric charges may flow in conductor instead of staying in a specific position.
• When there is a flow of charges, an electric current is said to be flowing.
• Electric current I is defined as the amount of charge Q flowing through any cross-section of a
conductor per unit time. Mathematically,
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
• The unit of current is ampere (A). By the definition of current, we have 1 A = 1 C s-1.
• The conventional direction of current is opposite to the direction of electron flow.
• The size of current flowing in a circuit can be measured by an ammeter.

2.2 Electrical energy and electromotive force

Energy transformation in electric circuit

• The moving charges in the circuit will carry energy acquired from the source (e.g. battery).
• The energy is then consumed by the load (e.g. fan, light bulb, speaker) when the charges go
through it.
• Hence electrical energy is transformed into other forms of energy.

Potential difference and electromotive force

• Potential difference between two points in a circuit is defined as the electrical energy converted to
other forms per unit charge going from one point to another point outside the source.
• Potential difference is observed only when there is energy dissipated between two points in the
circuit.
• Potential difference V across two points is also called the voltage across two points.
Mathematically,
&
𝑉 = ' , where E is energy and Q is charge
• The unit of voltage is volt (V). By the definition of voltage, we have 1 V = 1 J C-1.
• The potential difference across a source of electrical energy is called the electromotive force
(e.m.f.).
• In other words, electromotive force of a source is the energy provided by the source per unit
charge passing through it.
• The voltage across two points can be measure by a voltmeter.

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 • By drawing a ‘hill diagram’ (Figure 2.2d) of a circuit, we can see that the 4-V battery increases the
electric potential energy of each coulomb of electrons by 4 J from the + terminal to the – terminal
within the battery.
• The electrons decrease their electric potential energy by 3 J across bulb S and 1 J across bulb R
before returning to the battery for another cycle.

2.3 Resistance
• Resistance R of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the potential difference V across it to the
current I passing through it. Mathematically.
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
• The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω). By the definition of resistance, we have 1 Ω = 1 V A-1.

Ohm’s law
• Ohm’s law states that whenever the temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant,
the potential difference applied to a conductor is directly proportional to the current passing
through it. The above result can be expressed as V = IR, where R is the resistance of the conductor.
• In fact, Ohm’s law is valid for some conductors only. Conductors which obey Ohm’s law are called
ohmic conductors. Other conductors which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic
conductors.
• Ohmic conductors are a special type of conductor which has constant resistance.
• The following table listed some example of ohmic and non-ohmic conductors.

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 • The following shows the V-I graph of some conductors.

Resistivity of a metal wire

• The resistance R of a metal wire is directly proportional to its length l and inversely proportional to
*
its cross-section area A. Mathematically, 𝑅 = 𝜌 +, where 𝝆 is the proportionality constant.
• The proportionality constant 𝝆 is constant for a material at a particular temperature. It is
defined as the resistivity of a material. Hence, we have,
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅
𝑙
• The unit of resistivity is Ω m.
• High resistivity indicates that a material will strongly oppose the flow of electric current.

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Effect of temperature on resistance
• The resistivity of a material may change with the temperature.
• For most of the metal, the resistivity increases with temperature. Hence metal will have higher
resistance in higher temperature.
• For semiconductor, the resistivity decreases when temperature increases. Hence, its resistance
decreases when temperature increases.

Variable of a metal wire

• A potentiometer is a three-terminal device (marked as A, B and C in Figure 24.35) that can be used

as variable resistor (symbol: ) or a potential divider (symbol: ).

• In a potentiometer or a rheostat, there is circular or straight track of carbon composition or
resistance wire. A movable resistor can slide over the resistance track.
• When a rheostat is used as a variable resistor as shown in Figure 24.43a, terminals A and B are used
while terminal C is left not used. By moving the sliding contact, the length of wire through which
the current flows can be adjusted (Fig. 24.43b). Therefore, the resistance and hence the size of
current can be varied.

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 • When a rheostat is used as a potential divider, all three terminals are used. As shown in Figure
24.44a, terminal A and C are connected to a constant voltage across A and C into two adjustable
portions (i.e. the voltages across A and B and across B and C) by moving the sliding contact.
• The output voltage across the load can be adjusted from zero. To the p.d. across terminals A and C.

2.4 Series and parallel circuits

• If the electric devices in a circuit are connected by a single path, we said that they are connected in
series.
• Current passing through the electric devices connected in series is the same.
• If the electric devices in a circuit connected by difference paths share two nodes, we said that they
are connected in parallel.
• Potential difference across the electric devices connected in parallel is the same.

Combination of cells
• When cells are connected in series, charges in the circuit need to pass through all the cells.
• Each cell imparts energy to the charges passing through it.
• Hence, the total e.m.f. is the sum of the e.m.f. of each cell.
• When cells are connected in parallel, charges in the circuit only need to pass through one of the
cells each time.
• Hence, the total e.m.f. of each cell provided that all the cells are identical.

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Series connection of resistors
• Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series.

• The potential differences across R1 and R2 are V1 and V2.

• The equivalent resistance R of the two resistors can be calculated as follow:

𝑉 = 𝑉H + 𝑉J
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅H + 𝐼𝑅J
𝑅 = 𝑅H + 𝑅J

• The equivalent resistance is the sum of the resistance of each resistor. Hence, if we have N
resistors connected in series, then the equivalent resistance R can be expressed as:

𝑅 = 𝑅H + 𝑅J + 𝑅K +. . . +𝑅L

Parallel connection of resistors

• Two resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel.

• The potential difference across R1 and R2 is V.

• Current in the main circuit I will be divided into two parts, I1 and I2.
• The equivalent resistance R of the two resistors can be calculated as follow:

𝐼 = 𝐼H + 𝐼J
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
= +
𝑅 𝑅H 𝑅J
1 1 1
= +
𝑅 𝑅H 𝑅J

• The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance is the sum of the reciprocal of the resistance of each
resistors. Hence, if we have N resistors connected in parallel, then the equivalent resistance R
can be expressed as:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + +. . . +
𝑅 𝑅H 𝑅J 𝑅K 𝑅L

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Discussion
1. The following figure shows a simple circuit.

(a) The reading of ammeter X is 0.5 A. What is the reading of ammeter Y? (1 mark)

(b) How long does it take for 10 C of charge t flow through the bulb? (2 marks)

2. A PSP game system operates at a voltage of 5 V. Find the amount of energy consumed
(a) When 10 C of charge passes through the game console circuit; (2 marks)

(b) When 2.16 × 1022 electrons pass through the game console circuit. (2 marks)
(1 C of charge = the charge of 6 × 1018 electrons)

3. A battery with e.m.f. of 9 V is connected to a lamp. A current of 3 A flows through the

lamp for 2 minutes.
(a) How much charge has passed through the lamp? (2 marks)

(b) How much energy has been delivered to the lamp? (2 marks)

(c) What is the assumption made for your calculation in (b)? (1 mark)

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4. At a certain temperature, the resistance of a copper wire is 1.02 Ω. The length and
cross-sectional area of the wire are 1.2 m and 2 × 10-8 m2 respectively.
(a)
(i) Find the resistivity of copper. (2 marks)

(ii) How does the resistivity of the copper wire change if its length is
doubled (at the same temperature)? (1 mark)

(b) Find the resistance of a copper wires of length 2.4 m and cross-sectional area 1
× 10 -8 m2 (at the same temperature). (1 mark)

(c) Philip says that the resistivity of copper is smaller than that of glass under the
same temperature. Comment on his statement. (2 marks)

5. As shown below, three resistors are connected in parallel to a cell.

(a) Find the equivalent resistance of the three resistors. (1 mark)

(b) Find the current through the 4 Ω resistors. (2 mark)

(c) Through which resistor is the current the largest? (1 mark)

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6. Consider the following circuit.

(a) What is the reading of the ammeter after the switch is closed? (2 marks)

(b) Will the brightness of bulb A change after the switch is closed? Why? (2 marks)

7. Consider the following circuit.

(a) Find the current through bulb B when the switch is closed. (2 marks)

(b) What happens to the brightness of the brightness of the bulbs after the switch
is open? Why? (5 marks)

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Try yourself
1. (a) A current of 0.5 A flows through a lamp. Calculate the quantity of electric
charge passing through the lamp filament in 10 seconds. (2 marks)
(b) If the resistance of the lamp filament is 2 Ω, calculate the potential difference
across the lamp. (2 marks)

2.

In the circuit as shown in the figure, determine

(a) The current passing through the 3 Ω resistor. (2 marks)
(b) The voltage between A and B. (2 marks)

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3.

In the circuit as shown in the figure, the voltmeter reads 0.4 V when switch K is
opened. Calculate
(a) The current flowing through the resistors. (2 marks)
(b) The e.m.f. 𝜺 of the battery. (2 marks)
(c) The reading of the voltmeter when switch K is closed. (1 mark)
(d) The current flowing through the resistors when switch K is closed. (2 marks)

4. A tungsten wire has a radius 6 × 10-6 m and length of 3 cm. It is known that the
tungsten at 20℃ is 5.6 × 10-8 Ω m. Find
(a) The cross-sectional area of the wire. (1 mark)
(b) The resistance of the tungsten wire. (2 marks)

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5. An electric cable has a length of 50 m and diameter of 9 × 10-4 m. It is known that the
resistivity of copper is 1.7 × 10-8 Ω m.
(a) Find the resistance of this cable. (2 marks)
(b) What is the voltage drop across this cable when it carries a current of 12 A? (2 marks)

6. Consider the followin circuit. X, Y and Z have resistance of 0.8 Ω, 2 Ω and 3 Ω

respectively.

(a) Find the current through X. (3 marks)

(b) Find the p.d. across the parallel combination of Y and Z. (1 mark)
(c) Find the current through Y. (1 mark)

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7. As shown below, six resistors are connected in a network to a 12-V battery.

(a) Find the p.d. across resistors A and F respectively. (3 marks)

(b) Find the p.d. acorss the network of resistors B, C, D and E. (1 mark)

(c) Find the current through resistor D. (3 marks)

(d) Find the resistance of resistor D. (2 marks)

(e) Find the equivalent resistance of the network of resistors B, C, D and E. (1 mark)

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8. As shown below, four light bulbs are connected to a 6-V battery through a rheostat T.

(a) At the beginning, the switch is oped. Find the resistance of the rheostat if the
current throguh bulb P is 0.1 A. (2 marks)

(b) Then the swtich is closed.

(i) How will the current throguh bulb R change? (2 marks)

(ii) What is the equivalent resistance of the whole network? (2 marks)

(iii) What is the current through the rheostat? (1 mark)

(iv) What is the p.d. across the rheostat? (1 mark)

(v) Name a method to increase the p.d. across the rheostat. (1 mark)

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