SSDN

ELEMENTS OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
(2EE101)
SESSION – 2020 -21

UNIT - I

Dr. Pavan Khetrapal

1
 2
TEXT BOOKS and REFERENCE BOOKS
 When a body is charged, work is done in charging it. The ability of the charged body to
do work is called electric potential.

 The work done is measured in joules and charge in coulombs. Therefore, the unit of
electric potential will be joules/coulomb or volt. If W = 1 joule, Q = 1 coulomb, then
V = 1/1 = 1 volt. Hence a body is said to have an electric potential of 1 volt if 1
joule of work is done to give it a charge of 1 coulomb.
 When we say that a body has an electric potential of 5 volts, it means that 5 joules of
work has been done to charge the body to 1 coulomb. In other words, every coulomb
of charge possesses an energy of 5 joules.
 The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential
difference.
 The potential difference between two points is 1 volt if one joule of work is done
or released in transferring 1 coulomb of charge from one point to the other. 3
 The e.m.f. of a device, say a battery, is a measure
of the energy the battery gives to each coulomb of
charge. Thus if a battery supplies 4 joules of energy
per coulomb, we say that it has an e.m.f. of 4 volts.
The energy given to each coulomb in a battery is due
to the chemical action.
 The potential difference between two points, say
A and B, is a measure of the energy used by one
coulomb in moving from A to B. Thus if potential
difference between points A and B is 2 volts, it
means that each coulomb will give up an energy of
2 joules in moving from A to B.
4
One amp is defined as 6.28 x 1018
electrons per second

5
6
 The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric current is called its resistance.
 Since current is the flow of free electrons, resistance is the opposition offered by the substance to the flow of free
electrons. This opposition occurs because atoms and molecules of the substance obstruct the flow of these
electrons.
 A wire is said to have a resistance of 1 ohm if it releases 1 joule (or develops 0.24 calorie of heat) when a
current of 1 A flows through it for 1 second.

7
 Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854),
German physicist. Ohm published his
most important work in 1827, after OHM’S LAW
many years researching the
relationship between electrical current
and potential difference

8
Georg Simon Ohm own
handwritten experiment
write - up

9
 RESISTORS IN SERIES

In the circuit, three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in series across a supply voltage of V volts. The
same current (I) is flowing through all the three resistors. If V1, V2 and V3 are the voltage drops across the
three resistors R1, R2 and R3, respectively, then
V  V1  V2  V3  IR1  IR2  IR3 ( Ohm' s Law )
Let “R” be the total resistance of the circuit, then
V
 R1  R2  R3
I
or, R  R1  R2  R3 Thus, Total Resistance = Sum of the Individual Resistances
10
 Ques: Three resistances of values 4, 6 and 8 ohms are connected in
series across a 36 V DC Supply. Calculate:
a. The total resistance of the circuit, (18 Ω)
b. Total current in the circuit, (2 A)
c. The voltage drop across each resistance, (8V, 12V, 16 V)
d. The power dissipated in each resistance. (16W, 24W, 32W)

11
 Ques: Determine
a. The total resistance of the circuit, (60 Ω)
I b. Total current in the circuit, (200 mA)
c. The voltage drop across each resistance, (2V, 4V, 6 V)

Ques: Determine the applied voltage VT

12
 RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
 A parallel circuit is any circuit
that provides one common
voltage across all components
(or voltage is the same across
components connected in
parallel).
 Each component across the
voltage source provides a
separate path or branch for
current flow.

In the circuit shown in Figure, three resistors R1, R2 and R3 are connected in parallel across a supply voltage
of V volts. The current flowing through all the three resistors are I1, I2 and I3 respectively.
The total current drawn by the circuit is
V V V
I  I1  I 2  I 3    ( By Ohm' s Law )
R1 R2 R3
Let “RTotal” be the total resistance of the circuit, then
 1 1 1 
I  I1  I 2  I 3  V    
 R1 R2 R3 
I  1 1 1 
   
V  R1 R2 R3 
i.e., Reciprocal of total resistance = sum of
1  1 1 1  reciprocal of the individual resistances.
    13
RTotal / eq .  R1 R2 R3 
 All the appliances are operated at the same voltage, and therefore, all of them are connected in
parallel. Each one of them can be controlled individually with the help of a separate switch.
Ques Ques

Answer: 14.4 Ω Answer: 6 Ω

RESISTORS IN SERIES - PARALLEL

14
 VOLTAGE / POTENTIAL DIVIDER RULE

 The source voltage v is divided among the resistors in

direct proportion to their resistances; the larger the
resistance, the larger the voltage drop. This is called
the principle of voltage division

 In general, if a voltage divider has N resistors (R1, R2 ,……., R3 ) in series with the source
voltage v, the nth resistor Rn will have a voltage drop of

Rn
vn  v
R1  R2  ......... R N
15
Ques 1: Ques 3:
Ques 2:

Determine vx and voltage across

Determine V1 and V2 using parallel combination using Voltage
Voltage Divider Rule. Divider Rule. Determine V1 and V3 using Voltage
Divider Rule.

v x  2V Answer
Total Re sis tan ce ( R T )  20  60  80  Total Re sis tan ce ( RT )  2  5  8  15 k
V parallel combination  5 V Answer
E 64 E 45
I Supply    0.8 Amp I Supply    0.003 Amp
R T 80 RT 15000
V1  I Supply  R1  0.8  20  16 V Answer V1  I Supply  R1  0.003  2000  6 V Answer
V2  V5k  I Supply  R2  0.003  5000  15 V Answer
V2  I Supply  R 2  0.8  60  48 V Answer
V3  I Supply  R3  0.003  8000  24 V Answer
V   V1  V2  6  15  21 Volt Answer

16
 CURRENT DIVIDER RULE

 In parallel circuits, current is divided

depending upon the value of resistors and the
number of branches.
 Current in each branch of a parallel circuit
is inversely proportional to its resistance.

 This shows that the total current i is

shared by the resistors in inverse
proportion to their resistances. This is
known as the principle of current
division, and the circuit is known as a
current divider. Notice that the larger
current flows through the smaller
resistance.
For a parallel combination of N resistors, the current
through resistor Rk is given by:

17
Ques 1: Ques 2: Ques 3:

Determine resistor R1 to In the circuit of shown, use resistance

implement the division of combination methods and current division to
current shown. find i1, i 2 and v3

Determine I2 using Current R1  2  Answer

Divider Rule.

U sin g the Current Divider Formula

R1
I 2  Is 
R1  R 2
4000
 6
4000  8000
4
 6   2 Amp Answer
12

18
 Series
total of
40 
and 60 
Parallel
total of
240  and Series
60  total of
48 
and 2 

Parallel
total of
50  and
50 

19
20
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887), a German

physicist, stated two basic laws in 1847 concerning the
relationship between the currents and voltages in an electrical
network. Kirchhoff’s laws, along with Ohm’s law, form the
basis of circuit theory.
Born the son of a lawyer in Konigsberg, East
Prussia, Kirchhoff entered the University of Konigsberg at age 18
and later became a lecturer in Berlin. His collaborative work in
spectroscopy with German chemist Robert Bunsen led to the
discovery of cesium in 1860 and rubidium in 1861. Kirchhoff
was also credited with the Kirchhoff law of radiation. Thus
Kirchhoff is famous among engineers, chemists, and physicists.

21
 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

 Also known as Kirchhoff’s point or junction law.

 KCL is a consequence of Law of Conservation of Charge (i.e. charge can neither be created nor be destroyed).
 A point at which two or more elements have a common connection is called a node or junction.

 KCL states that

“The Algebraic Sum of the Currents Entering or Leaving any Node is Zero”.
OR
“The Sum of the Currents Entering a Node is Equal to the Sum of the Currents Leaving the Node”.

 Mathematically, KCL implies that

N
 in  0
n
where N is the number of branches connected to the node, and in is the nth current entering
(or leaving the node). By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive,
while currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
i3  i4  i1  i2  i5
OR
i1  ( i2 )  i3  i4  ( i5 )  0
22
23
Ques 1: Ques 2:

= 20 mA
Determine current I1 for the integrated = 16 V Answer
circuit shown.
= 8 kΩ
= 0.8 kΩ

24
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

 Also known as Kirchhoff’s work or energy law.

 KCL is a consequence of Law of Conservation of Energy (i.e. energy can neither be created nor be destroyed).
 A Loop is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or is intended to flow. (A
loop is a closed path formed by starting at a node, passing through a set of nodes, and returning to the starting node
without passing through any node more than once).

 KVL states that

“The Algebraic Sum of all Voltages Around a Closed Path (or Loop) is Zero”.
OR
“Around a Closed Path or Loop the Sum of the Voltage Drops = Sum of the Voltage Rises”

 Mathematically, KVL implies that

M where M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the

 vm  0 number of branches in the loop) and vm is the mth
m 1 voltage.

 The phrase algebraic sum indicates that we must take polarity into account as we add up the voltages of
elements that comprise a loop.
 KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking either a clockwise or a counter-clockwise trip around the loop.
Either way, the algebraic sum of voltages around the loop is zero. 25
  While traversing a closed path, if we
move from + terminal to – terminal
there is a voltage drop. If we move
from – terminal to + terminal, there
is a voltage rise. A voltage rise
 v 2  v3  v 4  v5  v1  0 indicates positive voltage and a
 v 2  v3  v1  0
OR voltage drop indicates a negative
OR
v1  v 4  v 2  v3  v5 voltage
v 2  v1  v3

SIGN CONVENTION FOR KVL

26
27
28
V1  V2  V3  E  0  V2  V3  V S  V1  0  V1  V2  V3  Vab  0

OR OR
OR
Vab  V1  V2  V3
E  V1  V2  V3 V S  V1  V2  V3

Ques:
Ques:

=15V

= 17 V 29
 MESH / LOOP ANALYSIS

 Mainly or Basically used to determine the Mesh or Loop Currents. Although other variables can also be
determined.
 KVL is used to determine the Mesh or Loop Currents.
 A Loop is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or is intended to flow.
 While travelling a Loop no element should be encountered more than once
 Mesh is also a Loop that contains no other Loop in it.

NOTE / MOST IMPORTANT:

 A closed loop is defined
as any path that
originates at a point,
travels around a circuit,
and returns to the
original point without
retracing any segments
(i.e. no element is
encountered more than
once)

Loop -1 Loop -2 Loop -3 (Outermost Path)

Loop - [A-B-E-F-A] Loop - [B-C-D-E-B] Loop - [A-B-C-D-E-F-A) 30
  Mesh is defined as a Loop
that contains no other Loop
in it.

Loop -1 Loop -2 Loop -3 (Outermost Path)

Loop - [A-B-E-F-A] Loop - [B-C-D-E-B] Loop - [A-B-C-D-E-F-A)

Mesh -1 Mesh -2 This loop is not a mesh because it

Mesh - [A-B-E-F-A] Mesh - [B-C-D-E-B] contains two other loops in it.

ALERT: In any case / situation / circumstance, while solving the

numericals to determine the mesh or loop currents, we have to count or

identify the number of meshes only. 31
3 Meshes

4 Meshes

32
1. Identify the number of mesh or meshes.
2. Arbitrarily assign a clockwise current to each mesh in the network. Although the
assigned current may be in any direction, a clockwise direction is used to make
later work simpler. [The number of mesh currents required to analyze a network will equal the

number of “windows” of the configuration].

3. Using the assigned mesh currents, indicate the voltage polarities across all
resistors in the circuit. For a resistor that is common to two meshes, the polarities of the voltage

drop due to each mesh current should be indicated on the appropriate side of the component.

4. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, write the each equations for each mesh in the
network. Do not forget that resistors that are common to two mesh will have two
voltage drops, one due to each mesh.
5. Solve the resultant simultaneous linear equations for the assumed mesh currents.
33
EXAMPLE: 1

34
 EXAMPLE: 2 Write the mesh equations for the circuit shown

I1 I2

1. Number of Meshes = 2.
2. Arbitrarily assign mesh currents (say clockwise in this case). [The number of mesh currents required to
analyze a network will equal the number of “windows” of the configuration].
3. Apply KVL to Mesh 1 [ Mesh 1 is that mesh to whom current I1 is designated].

E1  I1R1  R 3 ( I1  I 2 )  0
OR
E1  I1R1  R 3 (I1  I 2 )
OR
E1  I1R1  R 3I1  R 3I 2
OR
E1  I1 ( R1  R 3 )  R 3I 2 35
 I 2 R 2  E 2  R 3 ( I 2  I1 )  0
OR
E 2   I 2 R 2  R 3 ( I 2  I1 )
OR
E 2   I 2 R 2  R 3I 2  R 3I1
OR
E 2  I1R 3  I 2 ( R 2  R 3 )

ANSWER

36
EXAMPLE: 3
a. Determine mesh currents I1 and I2.
b. Determine the voltage drop across R1, R2 and R3.
c. Determine the power dissipated by R1, R2 and R3.

a. Determine mesh currents I1 and I2.

=0

Minus sign simply indicates that direction of

current I2 should be opposite to the assumed
one.
37
Now , I1 is found as : b. Determine the voltage drop across a. Determine the power dissipated
2  4I 2 R1, R2 and R3. by R1, R2 and R3.
I1 
6
( 2  4  ( 2) 28 VR1  I1R1  1 2  2 Volt PR1  I12  R1  1 2  2 Watt
I1  
6 6 VR 2  I 2 R 2  2 1  2 Volt PR 2  I 22  R 2  4  1  4 Watt
6 VR3  (I 2  I1 )  R 3  ( 2  1)  4  4 Volt
I1   1 Ampere PR3  (I 2  I1 ) 2  R 3  1 4  4 Watt
6
ANSWER
Minus sign simply indicates that
ANSWER
direction of current I1 should be
opposite to the assumed one.

ANSWER

38
39
40
41
ANSWER

42
EXAMPLE: 4 EXAMPLE: 5 EXAMPLE: 6

a. Determine mesh currents a. Determine mesh currents a. Determine mesh currents

I1 and I2. I1 and I2. I1 and I2.
b. Determine the voltage b. Determine the voltage b. Determine the voltage
drop across R1, R2 and R3. drop across R1, R2 and R3. drop across R1, R2 and R3.
c. Determine the power c. Determine the power c. Determine the power
dissipated by R1, R2 and dissipated by R1, R2 and dissipated by R1, R2 and
R3. R3. R 3.

ANSWERS
ANSWERS
ANSWERS

43
EXAMPLE: 7 Calculate the current in each branch of the circuit shown


The three mesh current equations are :
In Determinant Form
 14  5  3  I1  8
14I1  5I 2  3I 3  8     
  5 10  4  I 2   7 
 5I1  10I 2  4I 3  7
3I1  4I 2  9I 3  0  3 4  9  I 3  0
44
Now , I1 , I 2 , I 3 are found as :
8 5 3
1 2 3 1  7 10 4 
I1  ; I2  ; I3 
    0 4 9 

14 8 3 14 5 8 

 2   5 7 4  3   5 10 7 
ANSWER
 3 0 9   3 4 0 

ANSWER ANSWER

45
 1.5 Amp

1.65 Amp 2.12 Amp ANSWERS

EXAMPLE 7: Determine the current supplied

by each battery in the circuit shown below. EXAMPLE 8: Determine the currents in 50 Ω, 250 Ω
and 100 Ω resistors.

2.56 A 1.82 A  3.13 A

0.74 A

4.95 A

46
ANSWERS
EXAMPLE 9: Determine the currents I1, I2 and I using Mesh Analysis

7.5 A

2.5 A
10A

47
 NODAL ANALYSIS

 Mainly or Basically used to determine the NODE VOLTAGES (or Voltages of non –
reference node). Other variables then can also be determined (if required).
 KCL is used to determine the Node Voltages.
 A NODE or JUNCTION is a point in a circuit at which two or more than branches or
elements are connected. [The term Node is commonly used to refer to a junction of
two or more branches].
 Each current path is called a BRANCH.

ALERT: All the points connected together by a simple

wire represents the same node or only one single node.

48
49
 I

Va Vb I1 A I3
R
Va  Vb Va  0
I 
R R
V
I a KCL at Node A
R
I1  I2  I3  0
I V  Vb  Vc Va  Vb  0
Vb Vc I a 
Va R R
V  Vb
I2
I a
R R

When the direction of the

current flowing is not
given, then we will
assume that current is
emanating (or flowing
outwards) away from the
node.
50
1. Determine the number of nodes within the network.
2. Pick a reference node (or datum node or ground node), and label
each remaining node with a subscripted value of voltage: V1 (or Va),V2
(or Vb) and so on. [The negative of the battery is chosen as reference or datum node / The
node to which the maximum number of elements are connected is selected as datum or
reference or ground node].

3. Apply Kirchhoff’s current law at each node except the reference

node. Assume that all unknown currents leave the node for each
application of Kirchhoff’s current law. Each node is to be treated as
a separate entity, independent of the application of Kirchhoff’s
current law to the other nodes.
4. Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.
51
EXAMPLE: 1

52
53
54
55
20 V 8.48 V
6.06 V

2.304 A 1.696 A 0.605 A

0.606 A

0V

56
EXAMPLE 2: Determine the node voltage and the current through all the branches
VA
Node A Node A
1A

6Ω
12 Ω 6Ω
12 Ω

1A
+ 1A
24 V
- 24 V
+
-
Ground Node
0V
0V
Apply KCL at Node A
VA VA  24
1  or VA  2VA  48  12 VA  24  0
12 6 V 0 I 6 
or 3VA  12  48 I12  A 6
V V  24 12
or A  A 1 20  24
12 6 60 20 I12 
or VA   20 V I12  6
V V  24 3 12
or A  A 1 4
12 6 or VA  20 V I12  1.666 Ampere I12 
ANSWER 6
V  2VA  48
or A 1 I12   0.6666 Ampere
12
Minus sign simply indicates that direction
of current should be opposite to the 57
assumed one.
EXAMPLE 3: Determine the node voltages and the current through all the branches in the circuit

Node 1 Node 2

Ground Node

 Steps 1 and 2: The network has three nodes, with the bottom node defined as the reference node (at ground
potential, or zero volts), and the other nodes as V1 and V2
 Step 3: For node V1 the currents are defined as shown in Fig., and Kirchhoff’s current law at Node 1 is applied:

Node 1

58
Substituting values gives

or 0.375V1  0.25V2  6 (1)

 For node V2 the currents are defined as shown in Fig., and Kirchhoff’s current law at Node 2 is applied:

 Solving the two

Node 2
simultaneous equations i.e.
Eq. (1) and Eq. (2), V1 and V2
are obtained as:
V1 = 37.82 Volt
V2 = 32.73 Volt

or  0.25V1  0.35V2  2 (2)

59
 EXAMPLE 3: Determine the node voltages and the current through all the branches in the circuit

Circuit Diagram for

12 Ω Applying KCL at Node 1

Hint
2A
4A 2Ω
6Ω

Circuit Diagram for

Applying KCL at Node 2

ANSWERS

60

EXAMPLE 4: Determine the node
voltage/s and the current through
all the branches in the circuits
shown below
EXAMPLE 7: Determine the node
EXAMPLE 5: Determine the voltage
voltage/s and the current through
across RL using nodal analysis.
all the branches in the circuits
shown below

Va

Vc Vb

EXAMPLE 6: Determine the voltage

across vo using nodal analysis.

61
 5Ω 3Ω

Determine the node voltages and

the current through all the
1Ω branches in the circuit using
Mesh Analysis.
+
+ 4Ω Verify the results using Nodal
20 V Analysis
- 50 V
-

Determine the mesh currents and

the current through all the
branches in the circuit using
Nodal Analysis.
Verify the results using Mesh
Analysis

62
 SPECIAL CASE OF MESH ANALYSIS
(CONCEPT OF SUPERMESH)

Current source is in the

Current source common to two
outermost mesh (i.e. not
meshes (i.e. 6 A is common to
common to two meshes)
Mesh 1 and Mesh 2)

By observation, i2 = - 5 A [Since direction of When a current source is common to two meshes, then
current i2 and current source are in opposite such numericals or situations can be solved by the concept
direction, that’s why place a minus sign] of SUPERMESH
 4i1  6( i1  i 2 )  10  0
 A SUPERMESH results (or formed) when two
or 4i1  6i1  6i 2  10
meshes have a current source in common.
or 10i1  6  ( 5)  10  SUPERMESH is formed from two meshes that have a
or 10i1  10  30 current source as a common element; the current source is
 20 in the interior of the supermesh.
or i1 
10
or i1  2 Amp ANSWER 63
 SUPERMESH
Now apply KVL to SUPERMESH

 6i1  10i 2  4i 2  20  0
or 6i1  14i 2  20 (1)

Also,

i 2  i1  6 (2)

Solving two simultaneous equations (i.e. Equation (1) and (2)), i1 and i2 are obtained as:

ANSWER
64
QUESTION: Determine the mesh
currents for the circuits shown using
the concept of Supermesh.

65
 RT
RT

Don’t Worry
my child. I
will tell you
a method
which will
help you in
solving such
cases

 Circuit configurations are often

encountered in which the resistors
do not appear to be in series or
parallel. 66
 STAR – DELTA (Y – Δ) / DELTA – STAR (Δ - Y)
TRANSFORMATION / CONVERSION

 In Greek Language: Star is denoted by - Y and Delta is denoted by - Δ.

67
 RcRa
R ca  R c  R a 
R ca Rb
a c
a c
Ra Rc STAR - DELTA
RbRc
R bc  R b  R c 
Ra
R ab R bc
Rb RaRb
R ab  R a  R b 
Rc
b
b
The two circuits are equivalent
only if the resistance “seen”
between any two terminals is
Rab  Rca
Ra  exactly the same
Rab  R bc  Rca
R ca DELTA - STAR a c
Ra Rc
a c
Rbc  Rca
Rc 
Rab  R bc  Rca
Rab  Rbc Rb
Rb 
R ab R bc Rab  R bc  Rca

b 68
b
Ques: With suitable diagrams, derive the necessary relations for Star – Delta and Delta – Star Conversion. Students on their
own learning are
OR required to prepare
Derive the relationship between Star – Delta and Delta – Star Transformation the solution of this
question.

69
1

2 ANSWER 1

How the corresponding

Star Circuit will appear

Fig. 2 70
How the corresponding
Delta Circuit will appear

71
 1

2
( 2  and 1.5 
are in series)  3.5 
(4 and 1.5 are in series)  5.5 

(5.5  and 3.5 are in Parallel)

(5.5)  (3.5)

(5.5  3.5)
 2.138 

2 72
 3 3
R1  3  3 
1
 15 

3 1
3 1 R1  3  1 
R1  3  1  3
1
5
 15 

73
 (15)  (3) (15)  (3)
  2.5    2.5 
(15  3) (15  3)

(5)  ( 4) 20 (5)  ( 4) 20
     
(5  4) 9 (5  4) 9

8 1 8 4
   
1  5  8 14 7 5 1 5 Total resistan ce offered by the
  
1  5  8 14 circuit to the battery :

5 8 40
  
1  5  8 14

74
QUES: With the help of
star – delta conversion,
determine the current
supplied by the battery
in the circuit shown
below.

ALTERNATIVE
APPROACH

75
 JOULE’S LAW OF ELECTRIC HEATING
 HEAT ENERGY: The amount of heat (in joules) required to raise the temperature of 1 Kg mass of a substance
by 1 K (or 1 0C) is called the specific heat capacity (c) of the substance.
 The amount of heat required to change the temperature of the body or substance is:
 mass  specific heat capacity  change in temperature
WH  m c (T2  T1 ) Joules

kg
TK  TC  273.15
K (or 0C)
J/(kgK)

 J/ (kgK): Amount of Joules required to raise the temperature of 1 liter of water through 1 K (or 1 0C).
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of change of energy. The energy required
to transfer a charge of Q coulombs across a potential difference of V volts is given by

1 Horse Power =746 Watt

76
Joule’s law of Electric Heating is a mathematical description of the rate at which
resistance in a circuit converts electric energy into heat energy.
When an electric current is passed through a conductor, it generates heat due to the hindrance caused by the
conductor to the flowing current. The work done in overcoming the hindrance to the current generates heat
in that conductor.

77
 The English physicist James Prescott discovered that the amount of heat per second that
develops in a current-carrying conductor is proportional to the electrical resistance of the wire
and the square of the current.
 The heat that is generated because of the current flow in an electric wire is described in Joules. The
mathematical expression of Joule’s law is as explained below:
We know that
Energy  Power  time
Heat Energy due to Electric Current ( H )  Electric Power  time
 VIt
 (I  R )  I  t
H  I 2 Rt Joules

 A Joule is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an appliance of 1 Watt power is used for 1
second. [Joule is defined as the energy dissipated in a circuit when a voltage of 1 V circulates a current
of 1 A for 1 sec].

78
 Some Facts about Units

 1 kilocalories (kcal) = 4186 Joules = 4.186 kJ.

 Specific Heat of Water in kcal/(kg0C) = 1

 1 Calorie = 4.186 Joules ≈ 4200 Joules

 Specific Heat of Water in J/kg0 C (i.e. SI unit) = 4186 (i.e. 4186 J of heat can raise the temperature of 1 kg

of water by 10C)

 1 Kilowatt – hour (1kWh) = 36 × 105 (Watt – seconds) or (Joule)

5
= 36  10
Calories  860009.55 Calories
4.186
 860 kcal

79
 NUMERICALS
Ques: An electric water heater raises the temperature of 20 liters of water from 160C to 1000C. If the
efficiency of the is 85%, calculate the energy consumed by the heater (a) in Joules (b) in kWh. The
specific heat capacity of water is 4190 J/KgK. NOTE: Recall that the temperature
change (ΔT) is the same in units of
Solution: kelvin and degrees Celsius.

20 liters of water  20 kg of water Electrical

Energy
Rise in temperature (T1  T2 )  100  16  84 C0 Input
Heat
Energy Output of the Heater 
Energy heat energy required by water to raise its temperature
Output
 m  C  (T1  T2 )  20  4190  84
 7039  103 Joules
Efficiency  85%  0.85 Heat
Energy Output Energy
(a )Energy Input to the Heater  Output
Electrical Efficiency
Energy
Input 7039  103

0.85
 8.281 106 Joules ANSWER
8.281 106
(b )Energy Input to the Heater (in kWh ) 
3.6  106
 2.3 kWh ANSWER

80
Ques: Determine the time required for a 2 kW immersion heater to raise the temperature of 15 liters of
water from 20 to 950C. Take the efficiency of the process as 90% and the specific heat capacity of water as
4187 J/kgK. (time = 43 min 36s)

Ques: An electric kettle contains 1.5 kg of water at 150C. It takes 15 minutes to raise the temperature of
water at 950C. Assuming the heat losses due to radiations and heating the kettle to be 15 kCal, find the
current taken. The supply voltage is 100 V.
SOLUTION:
Quantity of water to be heated ( m )  1.5 kg Energy Input in Joules  W
Rating of Kettle   P 
Rise of temperatur e  T2  T1  95  15  800 C Operating Time in sec onds  t 
Heat Losses  15 Kcal 135  4200

Useful energy required to raise the temperatur e of water 15  60
 m  c  ( T2  T1 )  630 Watts
 1.5  1 80 Current Drawn ( I ) 
Rating of kettle
 120 kilocalories Supply Voltage
Energy Input  m  c  ( T2  T1 )  Heat Losses 
630
 1.5  1 80  15 100
 135 kilocalories  6.3 Amp ANSWER

81
Ques: A 1500 W immersion heater is used to heat 45 liters of oil. If the efficiency of operation
is 0.75 per unit (or 75%), find the time needed to raise the temperature of oil from 200C to
700C (1 liter of oil has a mass of 0.9 kg, the specific heat capacity of the oil is 2050 J/kgK).
(time = 61 min 29 sec)

Ques:

82
EXAMPLE: Cold water at a temperature of 15 °C enters a heater, and the resulting hot water has a
temperature of 61 °C. A person uses 120 kg of hot water in taking a shower. (a) Find the energy needed to
heat the water. (b) Assuming that the utility company charges $0.10 per kilowatt - hour for electrical
energy, determine the cost of heating the water.

ANSWER

ANSWER
83
84
Example: An electric heater contains 4 litres of water initially at a mean temperature of
15ºC. 0·25 kWh is supplied to the water by the heater. Assuming no heat losses, what is the
final temperature of the water ? (t = 68·80C) Answer

ANSWER

85
ANSWER

ANSWER

86
Example: How long will it take to raise the temperature of 880 gm of water from 16ºC to boiling
point ? The heater takes 2 amperes at 220 V and its efficiency is 90%. (13·08 minutes)

Example: A soldering iron is rated at 50 watts when connected to a 250 V supply. If the
soldering iron takes 5 minutes to heat to a working temperature of 190°C from 20°C, find its
mass, assuming it to be made of copper. Given specific heat capacity of copper is 390 J/kg°C.
Solution:
Let m kg be the mass of soldering iron.
Heat gained by the soldering iron = mcθ = m × 390 × (190 – 20) = 66,300 m joules
Heat released by the heating element = power × time = (50) × (5 × 60) = 15,000 joules
Assuming all the heat released by the element is absorbed by the copper i.e. soldering iron is 100%
efficient,
15,000 = 66,300 m
Thus, m = 15,000/66,300 = 0.226 kg ANSWER

87
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR CONNECTED TO DC SOURCE
89
 Consider a circuit containing a capacitor C in series with a resistor R connected to a
DC supply of voltage V. When the switch is closed the capacitor is uncharged and the
i vC voltage across the capacitor (vc) is zero. (q = Cvc  vc = q/C) (i.e. the capacitor
behaves as a short circuit).

vR V
R

S closed Capacitor as short circuit

The whole of the supply voltage V appears across R, i.e. vR = V. The value of the initial
current (I0) in the circuit is entirely decided by V and R.

Im 
V Maximum Charging Current
R

As the current starts flowing, the capacitor starts charging and the capacitor voltage
V (vc) increases. At any instant when i is the circuit current and q the charge on the
capacitor, then, by KVL
vr  vc  V
vr  V  vc
v
iR  V  v c
V  vc
V i
instant3
R
instant2 As vc increases, vR decreases and the charging current also decreases. Ultimately, when
instant1
capacitor becomes fully charged, vc becomes equal to V, vR becomes zero and the
charging current also becomes zero. Then the capacitor behaves as an open circuit.
0 t
 The charging process may be considered by considering some instant of time. By KVL

(1)

(2)

Where B is the constant of integration which is obtained as:

Since the capacitor is initially uncharged i.e. at t = 0, q = 0; so, vc = 0. Thus, from equation (2)

Substituting the value of B in equation (2) S o, voltage across capacitor is

t

v c  V  Ve RC
 t 
  
v c  V 1  e RC 
  91
 
 Initial Values (i.e. Values at the instant of starting (t=0))

 Initial voltage across the capacitor

0

v c  V(1  e RC )  V(1  e0 )
0
 Initial voltage across the resistor
t

v R  Ve RC  Ve 0
V
 Initial current in the circuit

0
V  RC V
i e 
R R
 Initial Rate of Rise of Voltage Across the Capacitor

t 0
dv c V  RC V  RC
 e  e
dt RC RC
V

RC

The term RC that appears in Equation is called the time constant τ (Greek letter tau), so

  RC 92
 t

Magnitude of the charge on the capacitor plates at time t,
q  q 0 (1  e RC ) q  q0 (1  e  1)  0.632q0  63.2%q0

Final charge on capacitor

  t 
   This equation gives the voltage across
vc  V 1  e RC 
  the capacitor at any instant of time
 

t This equation gives the current in the

V 
i  e RC circuit at any instant of time.
R

t This equation gives the voltage across


v R  Ve RC the resistor at any instant of time
DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTANCE

V V

By KVL , v c  v R  0 (1) Integratin g on both the sides ,

v c  Ri  0; dvc 1
  dt  B1
dq vc RC
vc  R 0
dt t
d (Cv c ) ln vc    B1 (2)
vc  R 0 RC
dt
where B1 is a cons tan t of int egration to be
dv c
RC   vc det er min ed from the int ial condiction, vc  V , at t  0
dt
Substituti on of these values in equation ( 2 ) Voltage across the resistor at any ins tan t
gives , v R   vc
lnV  0  B1
t
or B1  lnV  (3)
  Ve RC
So , equation ( 2 ) becomes
t Current in the circuit at any ins tan t
ln vc    lnV
RC t
vR V 
ln vc  lnV  
t i  e RC
(4)
RC R R
v  t Initial value of the disch arg e current is obtained
ln c   
V  RC by putting t  0 in equation ( 4 ) as
t
vc  V 0 V
 e RC I0   e 
V R R
t

vc  Ve RC The negative sign indicates the direction of discharge
current is opposite to that of charging current.

96
DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR THROUGH A RESISTANCE vc
V

0.5 V

0.368 V

t
 This equation gives the voltage
v c  Ve RC across the capacitor during
discharging at any instant of time

t This equation gives the voltage

 across the resistor during
v R   Ve RC
discharging at any instant of time

t
V  This equation gives the V
i   e RC discharging current 
R
R
Charging and Discharging
a Capacitor
99
ANSWER

ANSWER

100
Upto this point asked in
Class Test – I (Dec 2020)

101
EXAMPLE 1: For the circuit EXAMPLE 2: Determine the EXAMPLE 3:
shown below, determine the capacitor voltage in Figure shown
capacitor voltage after the switch below at a point in time 6 ms
is closed if the capacitor is after the switch is closed. Draw
initially uncharged. Draw the the discharging curve.
charging curve.

Suppose the capacitor of the above

Figure has 25 volts on it with
polarity shown at the time the
switch is closed.
a. Determine the expression for v c .
b. Determine the expression for i .
c
c. Compute vc and ic at t = 0.1 s.
d. Sketch vc and ic

a . vc  ( 40  15e  5t ) V
b . ic  ( 75e  5t ) Amp
c . vc  30.9 V
ic  45.5 mA ANSWER

102
 To find the value of e:
Press ALPHA Button and then
Press ln Button and then Press =
= 2.71828

To find the value of loge20

Press ln Button and then Press ( Button
and then Press 2 and 0 and then Press)
and the Press =
ln (20) =
2.995732

103
 In 1820, Oersted noticed something
strange while setting up an
experiment. When he placed a
compass near an electrical current, the
needle moved. Oersted’s discovery
proved that electricity could create a
magnetic field. It also proved that
there is a relationship between
electricity and magnetism. His work
paved the way for other scientists to
investigate electromagnetism.

104
 MAGNETISM is the force of attraction or repulsion of a magnetic material due to the
arrangement of its atoms, particularly its electrons.
Magnetite Loadstone Magnetic Lines
of Force

105
Magnetic Lines of Force

106
Electromagnets are a different Air Core Air Core
Inductor Inductor
from permanent magnets.
Electromagnets are made of coils of
wire with electricity passing through
them. Moving charges create magnetic
fields, so when the coils of wire in an
electromagnet have an
electric current passing through them,
the coils behave like a magnet. When
the electricity stops flowing, the coils
don’t act like a magnet anymore.
Air Core Iron Core
Toroid Toroid

Iron Core
Inductor Iron Core
Inductor Iron Core
Toroid
107
Magnetic Effect of Current Magnetic Field of a Coil

108
The complete closed path followed by magnetic lines of force or magnetic flux is referred to as a magnetic
circuit.

109
110
 Absolute   0  r
Permeability

Permeability of Free Relative

Space or Vacuum Permeability
= 4π × 10 -7 H/m 111
112
 SIMILARITIES
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
1. The closed path for magnetic flux is 1. The closed path through which an
called a magnetic circuit. electric current either flows or is
intended to flow is called as electric
circuit

3. Magnetomotive Force (mmf) = N × I 3. Electromotive Force (emf) = V × I

6. Magnetic Field Intensity 6. Electric Field Intensity

7. Permeance 7. Conductance
8. Permeability 8. Conductivity

DISSIMILARITIES
1. Energy is required in creating the 1. When current flows through an
flux, and not in maintaining it. electric circuit, energy is expended
so long as the current flows.
2. The magnetic lines of force appears 2. Electrons actually flows thus
to flow, actually it does not constitute the current
3. There is no perfect insulator for flux. 3. Air is perfect insulator for current 113
 AND
Air
Gap Air
Gap

Iron Iron Ring with Iron Ring with Iron Ring with
Ring Air-Gap Air-Gap Air-Gap

Air Air Gap

Gap

114
  The magnetic flux that does not follow
the intended path in a magnetic circuit
is called leakage flux.
 The tendency of the magnetic lines of
force to bulge out or spread out at the
edges of an air gap is called fringing.
Total  Useful   Leakage

Leakage Factor or
Lekage Coefficient (  )

 Total
Useful
115
 COMPOSITE SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT/SERIES MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

An iron ring of uniform material

Cast
Iron

Silicon
Steel
Wrought
Iron

Silicon
Steel Wrought
Iron

Cast Iron 116

 NUMERICALS PERTAINING TO MAGNETIC CIRCUIT

Ques: A coil of 2000 turns is wound uniformly over a magnetic ring of mean circumference of 80
cm and cross – sectional area 0.6 cm2 . If the current through the coil is 2A, calculate (a)
Magnetomotive Force (b) Magnetising Force (c) Reluctance (d) Total Flux and (e) Flux Density.
Solution: 0.6 c
2A
(a) Magnetomotive Force (mmf) = N × I = 2000 × 2 = 4000 AT
2000

NI 2000  2
(b) Magnetising Force (H) = l  0.8  5000 AT / m
80 cm
l 0.8 (Circumference)
  1.0611010 AT / Wb
(c) Reluctance (S) = 0 r a 4 10 1 0.6 10
 7  4

NI 2000  2
(d) Total Flux (Ø) = S   0.377 Wb
1.061 1010

 0.377  106
(e) Flux Density (B) =   6.2833  10 3 Wb / m 2
 4
A 0.6  10

117
Ques: An iron ring has a cross – sectional area of 400 mm2 and a mean diameter of 25 cm. It is
wound with 500 turns. If the value of relative permeability is 250, find the total flux set up in the
ring. The coil resistance is 474 Ω and the supply voltage is 240 V. 40.48 106 Wb
.
400 mm2

240 V
474  25 cm

500
 r  250

118
Ques: An iron ring of 400 cm mean circumference is made from round iron of cross section 20 cm2. Its
permeability is 500. If it is wound with 400 turns, what current would be required to produce a flux of
0.001 Wb? 7.961 A

Ques: An electromagnet has an air gap of 4 mm and flux density in the gap is 1.3 Wb/m2. Determine the
AT for the gap.
Solution: Here , l g  4 mm  0.4 cm  4  10 3 m ; B g  1.3Wb / m 2
Ampere turns for the gap
Bg
 H g  lg   lg
 0 r
1.3
  4  10  3  4140.127 AT
7
4  3.14  10 1

Ques: For the given iron ring, draw the magnetic circuit and analogous electric circuit

Magnetic Circuit

Electric Circuit
119
Ques: For Figure shown below, if the reluctance of the magnetic circuit is 12 × 104 AT/Wb, what is the
flux in the circuit?

Ques: A toroidal coil has a magnetic path length of 33 cm and a magnetic field strength of 650 A/m. The
coil current is 250 mA. Determine the number of coil turns. 858 turns

Ques: Determine the m.m.f. required to generate a total flux of 100µWb in an air gap 0.2 cm long. The
cross-sectional area of the air gap is 25 cm2. 63 .7 AT

Ques: Mild steel has a relative permeability of 800. Calculate the reluctance of a mild steel core that has
a length of 10 cm and has a cross – section area of 1.0 cm × 1.2 cm.
Solution:
l
Hint:[Reluctance of mild steel is given by:   a AT/Wb . Given: a = 1.2 × 10-4 m2 , μr = 800; l = 0.1 m]
0 r

120
Example: A mild steel ring having a cross – sectional area of Example: An iron ring of cross-sectional area 6 cm2 is wound
500 mm2 and a mean circumference of 400 mm has a coil 200 with a wire of 100 turns and has a saw cut of 2 mm. Calculate the
turns wound uniformly around it. Calculate (a) the reluctance of magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0·1 mWb if mean
the ring, and (b) the current required to produce a flux of 800 μWb length of magnetic path is 30 cm and relative permeability of iron
in the ring. Assume the relative permeability of mild steel to be is 470. lmean( magnetic path )  0.3 m
380.
 r  470
Solution: NOTE:
 0.1103 Wb
l B
( a ) Re luc tan ce ,   2 mm
H
 0 r a  0 r
0.4 6 104 m 2
  1.675  106 AT / Wb
380  4  3.14  10 7  500  10 6 100 turns

( b ) MMF     AT for Air  Gap AT for Iron Core ( or Part )

 ( 800  10 6 )  ( 1.675  106 )  1340 Amp Hg 
B

0.167
Hi 
B

0.167
 0 4  3.14  10  7  0 r 4  3.14  10  7  470
MMF 1340
So , Magneti sin g Current , I    6.7 A  132.9  103 AT / m  282.75 AT / m
N 200 ( AT )g  ( NI )g  H g  l g ( AT )i  ( NI )i  H i  l i
 132.9  103  ( 2  10  3 )  282.75  ( 0.3 )
500 106 m 2
 265.8  84.83
800 106 Wb
Mean circumfere nce
Total Ampere  turns Re quired ( NI)Total
 400 mm  0.4 m  265.8  84.83  350.63
S o, NI  350.63
N  200 mild steel 350.63
 I
100
 3.51 Amp
121
Ques: A magnetic core, in the form of a closed ring, has a mean length of 20 cm and a cross – sectional area of 1 cm2 .
The relative permeability of iron is 2400. What direct current will be needed in a coil of 2000 turns uniformly wound
round the ring to create flux of 0.2 mWb in the iron.
If an air – gap (or saw cut) of 1 mm is cut through the core perpendicular to the direction of this flux, what
current will now be needed to maintain the small flux in this gap? What fraction of total ampere – turns is required to
maintain the same flux in the air – gap? I ( without air  gap )  66.3 mA
I ( with air  gap )  862 mA
( AT )air  gap
 0.924
( AT )Total

Ques: The core of an electromagnet is made of an iron rod 1 cm diameter, bent into a circle of mean diameter 10 cm, a
radial air – gap of 1 mm being left between the ends of the rod. Calculate the direct current needed in coil of 2000 turns
uniformly spaced around the core to produce a magnetic flux of 0.2 mWb in the air – gap. Assume that the relative
permeability of the iron is 150, that the magnetic leakage factor is 1.2

Ques: A circular iron ring has a mean circumference of 1·5 m and a cross-sectional area of 0·01 m2 . A saw-cut of 4 mm
wide is made in the ring. Calculate the magnetising current required to produce a flux of 0·8 mWb in the air gap if the ring
is wound with a coil of 175 turns. Assume relative permeability of iron as 400 and leakage factor 1·25. [3.16 Amp]

122
 EXAMPLE:
Ques: A ring of ferromagnetic
material has rectangular cross-section.
The inner diameter is 7.4 inch, the
outer diameter is 9 inch and the
thickness is 0.8 inch. There is a coil of
600 turns wound on the ring. When
coil carries a current of 2.5 A, the flux
produced in the ring is 1.2 × 10–3 wb.
Find :
a. Magnetic field intensity
b. Reluctance
c. Permeability

OR

ANSWER
123
 = 4.5
Inch

0.8 = 3.7
Inch Inch

124
 INDUCTORS IN SERIES / SERIES CONNECTION OF INDUCTORS

Consider two coils connected in series.

Let L1 = self inductance of first coil
L2 = self inductance of second coil
M = Mutual inductance between the two coils.

125
 SERIES AIDING SERIES OPPOSING

This is the case when the coils are so arranged that their This is the case when the coils are so arranged that their
fluxes aid each other i.e. in the same direction as shown in fluxes oppose each other i.e. in the same direction as
Fig. Suppose the current is changing at the rate di/dt. The shown in Fig. Suppose the current is changing at the rate
total induced e.m.f. in the circuit will be equal to the sum di/dt. The total induced e.m.f. in the circuit will be equal to
of e.m.fs induced in L1 and L2 plus the mutually induced the sum of e.m.fs induced in L1 and L2 minus the mutually
e.m.fs, i.e. induced e.m.fs, i.e.
di di di di di di di di
e  L1  L2  M  M e  L1  L2  M  M
dt dt dt dt dt dt dt dt
di di
e  ( L1  L2  2 M ) e  ( L1  L2  2 M )
dt dt

If LT is the total inductance of the circuit, then, If LT is the total inductance of the circuit, then,
di di
e  LT e  LT
dt dt
 LT  L1  L2  2 M fluxes additive  LT  L1  L2  2 M fluxes subtractiv e / oppo sin g

If the mutual induc tan ce between the coils is absent i .e . M  0

then , LT  L1  L2 126
INDUCTORS IN PARALLEL WITH NO MUTUAL INDUCTANCE

Consider three inductances L1, L2 and L3 in parallel as

shown in Figure. Assume that mutual inductance between
the coils is zero. Referring to Figure, we have

iT  i1  i2  i3
diT di1 di2 di3
or   
dt dt dt dt
di di e
But e  L or 
dt dt L
e e e e
so ,   
LT L1 L2 L3
1 1 1 1
or   
LT L1 L2 L3
L1L2 L3
or LT 
L1L2  L2 L3  L3 L1
127
Ques: Consider two coils of inductances L1 and L2 connected in parallel. Let the mutual inductance between the two coils
be M. For such a configuration, derive an expression for the total equivalent inductance for the following two cases:
a. When the mutual flux aids the individual fluxes
b. When the mutual flux opposes the individual fluxes

RISE OF CURRENT IN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

OR OR

Consider an inductive circuit shown in Fig. When switch S is closed, the current increases gradually and
takes some time to reach the final value. Suppose at any instant, the current is i.

Instantaneous Gradual
Increase Increase
128
 In accordance with KVL Substituti ng the value of A in eq .( 1 )
1. Initial value of current i.e. at t = 0,
t 1 1
E  vR  vL   ln( E  iR )  ln E   0  E
 
R
E
L R R i 1 e L   1 e  0
di R  R
 iR  L  Rt E  iR  
  ln( E  iR )  ln( E )  ln
dt L E 0A
di R 2. 2. Rate of rise of current
or E  Ri  L  E  iR  t
dt or e L R
E di E  L t
 e A/s
1 di R dt L
or dt   t
L E  Ri or E  iR  Ee L
3. Initial rate of rise of current i.e. at
Integratin g on both the sides gives R
 t t = 0,
1 di or iR  E  Ee L R
 dt   A di E  L  0
  e
 t
A/s
L E  Ri E
R
dt L
i 1 e L  (3) E
t 1 R   A/s
  ln(V  Ri )  A (1 )   L
L R 4. Final value of current that is when
Equation( 3 ) gives the current at any ins tan t t 
Where A is a constant of integration which The voltage across the resistor at any ins tan t is     E
 
R
can be found by applying the initial i I
E
1 e L   1 e  
v R  iR R  R
conditions in the circuit (i.e. t = 0). At t = 0,  
i=0. Substituting these values in Eq. (1)   t
R
E
 E 1  e L   0
1   R
0 ln( E  0 )  A   
E
Amp
R The voltage across the inductor at any ins tan t is R
1
or A  ln E (2) vL  E  vR
R R
 t
 Ee L (4) 129
i/ i/

130
131
DECAY OF CURRENT IN INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
Consider an inductive circuit shown in Fig. When switch S is thrown to position a, the
current in the circuit starts rising and attains the final value I (= E/R) after some time
as explained in the previous discussion. If now switch is thrown to position b, it is
found that current in the R–L circuit does not cease immediately but gradually reduces
to zero. Suppose at any instant, the current is i and is decreasing at the rate of di/dt.
Then,

Note that decay of current

follows the exponential law.
132
The time constant may also be defined as
the time taken by the current to fall to 0·37
of its final steady value I (= E/R) while decaying.

133
Ques: The resistance and inductance of a series circuit are 5 Ω and 20 H respectively. At the instant of
closing the supply, the current increases at the rate of 4 A/s. Calculate (i) the applied voltage and (ii) the
rate of growth of current when the current is 5 A.
Solution:
( i ) The applied voltage is obtained as
E  vR  vL
di
 iR  L
dt
At the ins tan t of clo sin g the switch , i  0 Amp
 di 
 20  4 Given ,  4 A/ s
 dt 
E  80 Volts ANSWER

di
( ii ) E  iR  L
dt
80  5  5  20 
di
Given , i  5 A , and E is obtained as 80 volt 
dt
di 80  25

dt 20
 2.75 A / s ANSWER 134
Ques: A coil has a resistance of 2.5 ohms and its time constant is 1.6 seconds. Determine (a) the current
one second after 10 V is applied; (b) the time taken for the current to attain half its final value; (c) the
initial rate of increase of current.
Solution: Given : E  10V , R  2.5  t
L or e 1 .6  2
  1.6 s
R t
or  ln ( 2 )
1. 6
  t
R or t  1.6  0.6932
E
(a ) i  1 e L 
R   1. 1 s ANSWER
 
At t  1 s
( c ) The initial rate of increase of current
 
1 
i
10 
1 e 1.6   41  0.535 E E R
2.5     
  L R L
i  1.86 Amp ANSWER 10 1
 
2 . 5 1 .6
E 10  2.5 A / s ANSWER
( b ) Final value of current    4 Amp
R 2.5
Half of the final current  2 Amp
  t
R
E
i 1 e L 
R 
 
 
t 
2  4 1  e 1 .6 

 
 
t
 1
or e 1 .6 
2
135
Ques: A constant voltage is applied to a series R – L circuit at t = 0 by closing a switch. The voltage across L
is 25 V at t = 0 and drops to 5 V at t = 0.025s. If L = 2H, what must be the value of R ? R : 129.03 Ω Ans

Ques: The steady current flowing in an inductor is 250 mA ; the current flowing 0.1 sec. after connecting the
supply voltage is 120 mA. Calculate (i) time constant of the circuit and (ii) the time from closing the circuit
at which circuit current has reached 200 mA. (i) 0.153 s; (ii) 0.25 s Ans

Question:

ANSWER

ANSWER

ANSWER 136
DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF/MOTIONAL EMF STATICALLY INDUCED EMF

CONCEPT OF INDUCED EMF

137