Unit III – Magnetic Circuits

Electromagnetic Induction: Self and

mutual; Magnetically coupled
circuits; Series and parallel magnetic
circuits; Dot convention
Magnetic Circuit
• Electromagnetic
system
– Ferromagnetic core
– Exciting coil
– Coil has N turns
– Coil carries a current
of I amps
– Magnetic field
established
– Magnetic flux flows
through the core
– Small flux leaks
through air
 Magnetic Circuit
• The magnetic field intensity produced in the
core is H and from ampere circuital law,
𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑁 𝐼

𝐻. 𝑙 = 𝑁 𝐼

𝑁 𝐼 𝐴𝑇
𝐻= 𝑚 −−−−− −1
𝑙
• Magnetic field intensity H causes a flux
density B to be set up in the magnetic core. It
is given by,
𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻 −−−−− −2
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
 Magnetic Circuit
• Electromagnetic system is an important element
of all rotating electric machinery and static
devices like transformer.
• Role is to create & control electromagnetic fields
for EMEC process.
• EMEC happens with the help of magnetic field as
a coupling medium.
• The closed path followed by the magnetic flux is
called a magnetic circuit.
• Made up of materials having high permeability
such as iron, soft steel etc.
 Magnetic Circuit
• Sub equation 1 in equation 2,
𝑁𝐼
𝐵= 𝜇 −−−− −3
𝑙
• Flux flowing through the core is given by,
𝜙 = 𝐵 . 𝐴 −−−− −4

• Where B is the average flux density and A is

the area of cross section of the core.
• Substituting equation 3 in equation 4, we get,
𝑁𝐼
𝜙= 𝜇 𝐴
𝑙
𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼 ℱ
𝜙= = =
𝑙 ℛ ℛ
𝜇. 𝐴
Magnetic Circuit and Electric
Circuit
Comparison of Magnetic and
Electric Circuits
Magnetic Circuit Electric Circuit
Hopkinson’s Law Ohm’s Law
ℱ 𝑉
ϕ= 𝐼=
ℛ 𝑅
Reluctance, ℛ Resistance, R
𝓁 𝓁
= =
μ. Α σ. A
Flux (ϕ) Current (I)
MMF (ℱ) EMF (V)
Permeability (μ) Conductivity (σ)
Permeance (𝒫) Conductance (G)
 Direction of Current in a
Conductor
• No current through the conductor.
• Conductor carries current away from the
reader.
• Conductor carries current towards the reader.
 Right Hand Rule
• The direction of magnetic flux is found by using right
hand rule.
• Rule says that if one holds the conductor in such a way
that the thumb points in the direction of current, then
the closed fingers give the direction of flux produced.
 Faradays Law
• Whenever there is a variation of magnetic
flux linking with a coil, an EMF is induced in
that coil.
• The magnitude of this EMF is proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkages.
𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑀𝐹, 𝑒 = − 𝑁 = −
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Lenz’s Law
• Lenz’s law states that the induced EMF in a coil
will induce a current whose direction is such
that it opposes the cause producing the EMF.
A ring is composed of three sections. The cross
sectional area is 0.001 m2 for each section. The mean
arc lengths are la = 0.3 m, lb = 0.2 m and lc = 0.1 m. An
air gap length of 0.1 mm is cut in the ring. Relative
permeability for sections a, b and c are 5000, 1000 and
10000 respectively. Flux in the air gap is 7.5 X 10-4
Wb.
Find (i) mmf, (ii) exciting current if the coil has 100
turns, (iii) reluctance of the sections.
Given Data
 Solution
• Air-gap and three sections form a series magnetic circuit.
• Flux in the air-gap is same as that of the three sections.
• Hence total mmf is the sum of mmf for each part of the
magnetic circuit.
Solution
Solution
The magnetic circuit has dimensions: AC = 4 X 4 cm2,
lg = 0.06 cm, lc = 40 cm and N = 600 turns. Assume
the value of µr = 6000 for iron. Find the exciting
current for BC = 1.2 T and the corresponding flux and
flux linkages.
Solution
• A wrought iron bar 30 cm long and 2 cm in
diameter is bent into a circular shape as
shown in figure below. It is then wound with
600 turns of wire. Calculate the current
required to produce a flux of 0.5 mWb in the
magnetic circuit in the following cases:
(i) no air – gap
(ii) with an air-gap of 1 mm
(µr of iron = 4000)
 (i) No Air-Gap

𝑵. 𝒊 = 𝑯𝒄 𝒍𝒄 𝒊

𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
𝑩 =
𝑵. 𝒊 = 𝒍𝒄 𝟔𝟎𝟎. 𝝅. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 𝟐 𝟒𝝅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 × 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓

𝝓. 𝒍𝒄 𝒊
𝑵. 𝒊 = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝑨
𝑨. 𝝁𝟎 . 𝝁𝒓

𝝓. 𝒍𝒄
𝒊=
𝑵. 𝑨. 𝝁𝟎 . 𝝁𝒓
 (ii) With Air-Gap
𝑵. 𝒊 = 𝑯𝒄 𝒍𝒄 + 𝑯𝒈 𝒍𝒈
𝜙 𝑙𝑐
𝑩 𝑖= + 𝑙𝑔
𝑵. 𝒊 = 𝒍 𝑁. 𝐴. 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓 𝒄
𝑖
𝑩
+ 𝒍𝒈
𝝁𝟎
0.5 × 10−3 30 × 10−2
=
𝑩 𝒍𝒄 600. 𝜋. 1 × 10−2 2 4𝜋 × 10−7 4000
𝑵. 𝒊 = + 𝒍𝒈
𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓

𝝓 𝒍𝒄 + 1 × 10−3 𝒊 = 𝟐. 𝟐 𝑨
𝑵. 𝒊 =
𝑨. 𝝁𝟎 𝝁𝒓

+ 𝒍𝒈
• The magnetic circuit shown below has steel core with
dimensions as shown.
Mean length from A to B through either outer limb = 0.5
m
Mean length from A to B through central limb = 0.2 m
It is required to establish a flux of 0.75 mWb in the air-
gap of the central limb. Determine the mmf of the
exciting coil if the core material has
𝒂 𝝁𝒓 = ∞ 𝒃 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
Neglect fringing.
𝒂 𝝁𝒓 = ∞
𝒂 𝝁𝒓 = ∞
𝒃 𝝁𝒓 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎
 Magnetically Coupled Circuits

 The circuits we have considered so far may be regarded as

conductively coupled, because one loop affects the neighboring loop
through current conduction.
 When two loops with or without contacts between them affect each
other through the magnetic field generated by one of them, they are
said to be magnetically coupled.
 Magnetically Coupled Circuits
 Mutual Inductance is the basic operating principal of many application such as
transformer, magnetic levitation trains and other electrical component that
interacts with another magnetic field.

 These devices use magnetically coupled coils

to transfer energy from one circuit to another.

 But mutual inductance can also be a bad thing as “stray” or “leakage”

inductance from a coil can interfere with the operation of another adjacent
component by means of electromagnetic induction, so some form of protection
may be needed
 Self Inductance
Faraday’s Law
The voltage is induced in a circuit whenever
the flux linking (i.e., passing through) the
circuit is changing and that the magnitude
of the voltage is proportional to the rate of
change of the flux linkages

Lenz’s Law the polarity of the induced voltage is such as to oppose the cause
producing it.

4
 Self Inductance
Induced Voltage
 Because the induced voltage in tries to counter (i.e., opposes) changes in
current, it is called Back or Counter EMF
 it opposes only changes in current NOT prevent the current from changing; it
only prevents it from changing abruptly.

• This Equation is sometimes shown with a minus sign.

• However, the minus sign is unnecessary. In circuit theory, we use
the equation to determine the magnitude of the induced voltage
and Lenz’s law to determine its polarity.

 Since induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of flux, and since flux
is proportional to current, induced voltage will be proportional to the rate of
change of current.

L: self inductance in Henry

 Self Inductance
From both equations, we get:

For Sinusoidal: d/dt = jw V = L (jw) i = j i XL

For Linear System (coils with air-core not iron-core):

L = N ф/ i

 Self-Inductance parameters
 Mutual Inductance
When two inductors (or coils) are in a close proximity to each other,
the magnetic flux caused by current in one coil links with the other
coil, thereby inducing voltage in the latter.

 For the sake of simplicity, assume that the

second inductor carries no current.

 The magnetic flux emanating from

coil 1 has two components: One
component links only coil 1, and
another component links both coils.

Leakage Flux + Linkage Flux

1. The induced voltage in the first coil

2. The induced voltage in the 2nd coil 8

where M21 is known as the mutual inductance

of coil 2 with respect to coil 1.

 M21 relates the induced voltage in coil 2 to the current in coil 1.

 Thus, the open-circuit mutual voltage (or induced voltage) across coil 2 is v2

Similarly :

Mutual Inductance is bilateral:

 Coupling Coefficient

Is the fraction of the total flux that links to both coils

 The term close coupling is used when most of the flux links the coils, either
by way of a magnetic core to contain the flux or by interleaving the turns of
the coils directly over one another.
 The term loose coupling is used when Coils placed side-by-side without a
core and have correspondingly low values of k.
 Types of Induced EMF
• According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction, an EMF is induced by changing the flux
linkages in a coil. It can happen in two ways.

• EMF is induced either “moving the coil and keeping

the magnetic field stationary” or “moving the
magnetic field and keeping the coil stationary”.

• EMF is induced by changing the flux linking with a coil

without moving either coil or magnetic field system.
 Dynamically Induced EMF

• “Moving the coil and keeping the magnetic

field stationary” or “moving the magnetic
field and keeping the coil stationary”.

• EMF induced by this way is called dynamically

induced emf.
 Dynamically Induced EMF
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑑𝑥

𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵 × 𝐴

= 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥

• According to Faraday’s law,

𝑑𝜙 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒 = = = 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• Since dx/dt=velocity
 Dynamically Induced EMF
• Now the conductor moves at an angle ϴ with the direction of
magnetic field.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑠
= 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑑𝜙 = 𝐵 × 𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

• According to Faraday’s law,

𝑑𝜙 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑑𝑥. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓, 𝑒 = = = 𝐵. 𝑙. 𝑣. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Statically Induced EMF

• EMF induced in a coil when both the coil

and magnetic field system are stationary but
the magnetic flux linking with the coil
changes is called statically induced emf.
Types of Statically Induced EMF

• Self – Induced e.m.f.

• Mutually Induced e.m.f.

 Self Induced EMF

• Self-induced e.m.f. is the

e.m.f. induced in a coil
due to its own changing
flux linked with it.
 Self Induced EMF
• Direction of induced voltage is such that it
opposes the cause producing it.

• Rate of change of flux depends on rate of

change of current.

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑒∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
• L is the self inductance of the coil.
 Mutually Induced EMF

• Mutually induced
e.m.f. is the e.m.f.
induced in a coil due
to the change of flux
produced by another
coil (kept close)
linking with it.
 Magnetisation Curve
• The curve that shows the variation in magnetic flux density
B with respect to the variation in magnetic field intensity H
in a ferromagnetic material.
 Hysteresis Loop
• A hysteresis loop shows the variation of the magnetic flux
density (B) with respect to the variation in magnetizing
force (H).
• It is often referred to as the B-H loop.
 Hysteresis Loop
• Retentivity – It is the ability of a material to retain a
certain amount of residual magnetic field when the
magnetizing force is removed after achieving
saturation.

• Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux – The magnetic

flux density that remains in a material when the
magnetizing force is zero.

• Coercive Force – The amount of reverse magnetic field

which must be applied to a magnetic material to make
the magnetic flux return to zero.
 Hysteresis and Eddy Current
Loss
• When a magnetic material is subjected to
cyclic magnetization, two kinds of power
losses occur in it.

• Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss together

called core loss.
 Hysteresis Loss
• Magnetic circuit is subjected to magnetic field
reversals as it passes under successive poles.
 Hysteresis Loss
• Some amount of power has to be spent to
reverse the molecular magnets in the armature
core continuously.
• It is considered as loss.
• The loss of power in the core due to hysteresis
effect is called hysteresis loss.
 Hysteresis Loss
• It is given by Steinmetz formula.
𝐻𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃ℎ = 𝐾ℎ 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.6 𝑓 𝑣 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Where
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3
𝐾ℎ = 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑧 𝑕𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜 − 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡

• To reduce this loss, the magnetic core is made of

such materials which have a low value of Steinmetz
hysteresis co-efficient e.g., silicon steel.
 Eddy Current Loss
• In addition to the voltages induced in the conductors,
there are also voltages induced in the magnetic core.
• These voltages produce circulating currents in the core.
 Eddy Current Loss
• It is given by
𝐸𝑑𝑑𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝑒
= 𝐾𝑒 𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝑓 2 𝑡 2 𝑣 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
Where
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚3
𝑡 = 𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚
𝐾𝑒 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The core loss (hysteresis + eddy current loss)
for a given specimen of magnetic material is
found to be 2000 W at 50 Hz. Keeping the flux
density constant, the frequency of the supply
is raised to 75 Hz resulting in a core loss of
3200 W. Compute separately hysteresis and
eddy current losses at both the frequencies.
 Leakage Flux

• The stray flux, which does not take

part in the energy conversion
process, is called leakage flux.
• This leakage flux can never be
eliminated.
• The effect of leakage flux is
incorporated in machine models
through the concept of the leakage
inductance.
 Fringing
• The flux in a magnetic circuit bulges (or
fringes) outwards while passing
through an air-gap.
• This results in non-uniform flux density
in the air-gap, enlargement of air-gap
area and reduction in flux density in
air-gap.
• This phenomenon is called fringing.
The effect of fringing increases with the
increase in air-gap length.
 Stacking Factor
• Magnetic cores are made up of thin, lightly
insulated (coated with varnish) laminations to
reduce eddy current loss.
• As a result, the net cross sectional area of the
core occupied by the magnetic material is less
than its gross cross section.
• Hence the ratio of net cross sectional area to
the gross cross sectional area of the core is
called Stacking factor.
• The field winding of DC electromagnet is wound with
800 turns and has a resistance of 40Ω when exciting
voltage is 230 V and the magnetic flux around the coil
is 0.004 Wb. Calculate self-inductance and energy
stored in magnetic field.

𝑁. 𝜙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑒

𝐿=
𝑖
1 2
𝑉 230 = 𝐿𝑖
𝑖= = 2
𝑅 40
= 5.75 𝐴 1
𝑒 = 0.556 × 5.752
2
800 × 0.004
∴𝐿= 𝑒 = 9.19 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
5.75
𝐿 = 0.556 𝐻
• Two coils A and B are wound on same iron core. There are
600 turns on A and 3600 turns on B. 4 amps of current
through the coil A produces a flux of 500 X 10-6 Wb in the
core. If this current is reversed in 0.02 seconds, calculate
average emf induced in coils A and B.
• Current reversal means that the current changing from +4A to -4A.
• Actual change in current is 8A. Hence change in flux is 1000 X 10-6
wb

𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜙
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐴 = 𝑁1 . 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐵 = 𝑁2 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐴 𝐸𝑀𝐹 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝐵
0.001 0.001
= 600. = 3600.
0.02 0.02
𝐸 = 30 𝑉 𝐸 = 180 𝑉
 Properties of Magnetic
Materials
• All materials are classified according to their relative permeability.

Paramagne • µr slightly greater

tic than 1

Diamagneti • µr slightly lesser

c than 1
Ferro & • µr much higher
Ferrimagne than that of free
tic space
 Properties of Magnetic
Materials
• Ferromagnetic materials are further subdivided into hard and soft.

Hard
Soft
(Per. Magnet)
• Alnico • Iron and its
• Chromium alloys with
steel nickel, cobalt,
• Copper nickel tungsten and
alloys aluminium
• Metal alloys
 Analysis of Coupled Circuits

 Polarities in Close Coupling

• So in our case :

66
 Analysis of Coupled Circuits

 Passive loops Consideration: Natural Current

 Source V1 drives a current i1, with a

corresponding flux ф1 as shown.
 Now Lenz’s law implies that the polarity of
the induced voltage in the second circuit
will make a current through the second coil
in such a direction as to create a flux
opposing the main flux established by i1 .
• When the switch is closed, flux ф2 will have the direction shown
• The right-hand rule, with the thumb pointing in the direction of ф2 ,
provides the direction of the natural current i2

 The induced voltage is the driving voltage for the

second circuit, as suggested in figure 14-6:

67
 Series-Aiding and Series opposing Coils

1. Series Aiding Coils

2. Series opposing Coils

Subtract both equations:

Electrical Circuits (2) - Basem ElHalawany 68

 Parallel-Aiding and Parallel-opposing Coils

1. Parallel Aiding Coils

2. Parallel opposing Coils

Electrical Circuits (2) - Basem ElHalawany 69

 16
dot convention
 Since it is inconvenient to show the construction details of coils on a circuit
schematic, we apply the dot convention in circuit analysis.
 A dot is placed in the circuit at one end of each of the two magnetically coupled

 Steps to assign the dots:

a. select a current direction in one coil and place a dot at the

terminal where this current enters the winding.
b. Determine the corresponding flux by application of the
right-hand rule

c. The flux of the other winding, according to Lenz’s law,

opposes the first flux.
d. Use the right-hand rule to find the natural current
direction corresponding to this second flux

e. Now place a dot at the terminal of the second winding

where the natural current leaves the winding.

Electrical Circuits (2) - Basem ElHalawany

 17
The Dot Rule
1. When the assumed currents both enter or both leave a pair of coupled coils
by the dotted terminals, the signs on the M-terms will be the same as the
signs on the L-terms
2. If one current enters by a dotted terminal while the other leaves by a dotted
terminal, the signs on the M-terms will be opposite to the signs on the L-
terms.

For
Sinusoidal
Variation
 18
The Dot Rule
 Application (Transformers)
Energy is transferred from the source to the load via the transformer’s magnetic
field with no electrical connection between the two sides.

Iron-Core Transformers:
The Ideal Model

• Iron Core : All flux is confined to the core and links both windings. This is a
“tightly coupled” transformer.
• Ideal: No power Loss

Voltage Ratio

This ratio is called the turns ratio (or transformation ratio)

and is given the symbol a.
19
 20

 A step-up transformer is one in which the secondary voltage is higher than the
primary voltage, (a < 1)
 A step-down transformer is one in which the secondary voltage is lower. (a > 1)

• Because an ideal transformer has no power loss, its

efficiency is 100% and thus power in equals power out.

Reflected Impedance of  A transformer makes a load impedance look larger

Iron-core Transformer or smaller, depending on its turns ratio.

 When connected directly to the source, the load looks like impedance
ZL , but when connected through a transformer, it looks like a2 ZL .
 A transformer can be used to raise or lower the apparent impedance of a load
by choice of turns ratio.
 This is referred to as impedance matching.
 Impedance matching is sometimes used to match loads to amplifiers to achieve
maximum power transfer.

Example: If the speaker of Figure 23–29(a) has a resistance of 4 ohm, what

transformer ratio should be chosen for max power? What is the power to the
speaker?

Make the reflected resistance of the speaker

equal to the internal (Thévenin) resistance of
the amplifier.

Since half the source voltage appears across it.

21
 Reflected Impedance in Loosely Coupled Circuits
 Coupled circuits that do not have iron cores are said to be a loosely coupled.
 Those circuits cannot be characterized by turns ratios; rather, they are
characterized by self and mutual inductances.
 Air-core transformers and general inductive circuit coupling fall into this
category.

The impedance that you see reflected to the primary side from
the secondary side is referred to as coupled impedance.

 Solving 2nd Equation for I2 and substituting this into 1st Equation yields, after some
manipulation:

22
 Reflected Impedance in Loosely Coupled Circuits

 Now, divide both sides by I1 , and define

which reflects the secondary impedances into the primary, is

the coupled impedance for the circuit.

 Note that since secondary impedances appear in the denominator,

they reflect into the primary with reversed reactive parts.
 Thus, capacitance in the secondary circuit looks inductive to the source
and vice versa for inductance

23