CHAPTER 1: BASIC CONCEPTS

1.1 Introduction

• An electrical circuit is an interconnection of several elements.

It is a mathematical model that approximates the behavior of
an actual electrical system.
• Circuit theory is the study of analyzing an electrical circuit.
eg: input–output mapping etc.

1.2 International System of Units (SI)

• SI is an international measurements language.

• There are six principal units, as shown in Table 1.1

Table 1.1

Quantity Basic unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela cd

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• The SI units also uses prefixes based on the power of 10 to
relate larger and smaller units to the basic unit as shown in
Table 1.2

Table 1.2

Multiplier Prefix Symbol

1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 mili m
10-6 micro µ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a

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1.3 Charge and Current
Most basic quantity in an electric circuit – electric charge

Charge, e, is an electrical property of the atomic particles of

which matter consists, measured in coulomb (C)

• Elementary physics – all matter is made of atoms that consist

of electrons, protons and neutrons.
• The charge, e of electron is negative and equal in magnitude
to 1.602 x 10-19 C.
• A proton carries a positive charge of the same magnitude as
the electron.
• Notes on electric charge:
(i) Coulomb is a large unit for charges.
1C = 1/(1.602x10-19) = 6.24 x 1018 electrons.
(ii) Charges are integral multiplies of the electron charge.
(iii) The law of conservation of charge – charge can neither
be created nor destroyed, only transferred.
• Electric charge is mobile.
• The motion of charges creates electric current, I as visualized
in Figure 1.1

Battery

Figure 1.1

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• The current flow in a conductor:

Electric current, I, is the time rate of change of charge,

measured in amperes (A).

• The relationship between current, i, charge q and time t is

dq ( t )
i (t ) = (1.1)
dt

where current is measured in amperes (A) and

1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second
• From Equation (1.1), the charge transferred between time t0 to t
is obtained using

q ( t ) =  i ( t ) dt
t
Two type of current:
(1.2)
t0

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Two type of current:
(i) direct current (dc)

A direct current is a current that remains constant

with time

0 t

Figure 1.2
(ii) alternating current (ac)

An alternating current is a current that varies sinusoidally

with time

0 t

Figure 1.3

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Example 1.1:
(i) The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞(𝑡) =
5𝑡 sin 4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐶. Calculate the current at t = 0.5 s.

(ii) The current flowing through an element is

2𝐴 0<𝑡<1
𝑖 (t) = {
2𝑡 2 𝐴 𝑡>1
Calculate the charge entering the element from
t = 0 to t = 2s

Answer:
(i)

At 𝑡 = 0.5𝑠,
𝑖(0.5) = 2.5 sin 2𝜋 + 10𝜋 cos 2𝜋
= 31.42𝑚𝐴

2 1 2
(ii) q (t ) =  i (t )dt =  2dt +  2t 2 dt
0 0 1

3 2
2t  16 2  20
= 2t 0 + = (2 − 0) +  −  = C
1

3 1  3 3 3

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Example 1.2:
The charge entering a certain element is shown in Figure 1.4. Find
the current at
(i) 𝑡 = 1 𝑚𝑠 (ii) 𝑡 = 6 𝑚𝑠 (iii) 𝑡 = 10 𝑚𝑠
q (mC )

80

t (ms )
2 8 12

Figure 1.4
Answer:

dq ( t )
From i ( t ) = , we need to find equation for q (t )
dt
before finding i (t ) .

(i) At t = 1 ms
From Figure 1.4, it is a linear equation

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 q1 (t ) = m 1 t + C1
80 − 0
m1 = = 40 ; C1 = 0
2−0
 q1 (t ) = 40t
dq1 (t ) d (40t )
i1 (t ) = =
dt dt
= 40 A

(ii) At t = 6 ms
The charge is constant, where
q2 (t ) = 80C
dq2 (t )
Thus, i2 (t ) =
dt
d (80)
=
dt
= 0A

(iii) At t = 10 ms
It is a linear equation with negative gradient
q3 (t ) = m3t + C3
0 − 80
m3 =
12 − 8
= −20
C = 240
Thus,  q3 (t ) = −20t + 240mC

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 dq3 (t )
i3 (t ) =
dt
d ( −20t + 240)
=
dt
= −20 A

1.4 Voltage
• Voltage is an external electromotive force (emf) (typically
represented by the battery) which performs work to move the
electron in a conductor.
• Also known as potential difference between two points.

Voltage, vab between two points a and b in an electric circuit

is the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a
to b.
a

vab

Figure 1.5
• Based on Figure 1.5,
Potential different between a – b, vab = va − vb

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• Mathematically:

dw
vab = (1.3)
dq
where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C).
• Voltage is measured in volts (V), where
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb = 1 newton meter/coulomb.
• Let consider Figure 1.6

a a

9V −9V

b b
(a) (b)

Figure 1.6
For Figure 1.6 (a),
𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 9𝑉
𝑣𝑏𝑎 = −9𝑉
For Figure 1.6 (b)
vab = −(−9V ) = 9V
vba = −9V

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Example 1.3:
Find Va, Vb, Vc, Vd and Ve for the circuits shown in Figure 1.7(a)
and 1.7(b).

VC Vd Ve
 30V  10V 

6V

Va
 5V 
Vb

(a)
Vc Vd Ve
 30V  10V 

6V

 5V 
Vb Va

(b)
Figure 1.7

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Answer:
For Figure 1.7(a),
Va = 0V
Vab = 5V
= Va − Vb
 Vb = −5V
Vbc = 6V
= Vb − Vc
 Vc = −11V

Vdc = 30V
= Vd − Vc
 Vd = 19V
Ved = 10V
= Ve − Vd
 Ve = 29V

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For Figure 1.7 (b)
V = 0V
Vdc = 30V
= Vd − Vc
 Vd = 30V
Ved = 10V
= Ve − Vd
 Ve = 40V
Vbc = 6V
= Vb − Vc
 Vb = 6V
Vab = 5V
= Va − Vb
 Va = 11V

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1.5 Power and Energy
• Definition of power

Power is the time rate of expanding or absorbing energy,

measured in watts (W)

• Mathematically can be defined as:

dw(t )
p (t ) = (1.4)
dt
dw(t ) dq (t )
p (t ) = .
dq (t ) dt (1.5)
= vi
where 𝑝 is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J) and t is
time in second (s).
• positive power refers to power is delivered to/absorbed by
element.
• negative power refers to power is being supplied by element.

Let consider Figure 1.8

i1
+ v1 −
i2 (a)
− v2 +

(b)

Figure 1.8

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 Based on Figure 1.8,
if the current flows to positive terminal of element
P1 = i1v1 (absorbed power)
If the current flows to negative terminal of element
P2 = (−i2 )v2 (supplied power)

• In a complete circuit total of power absorbed is equal to total of

power supplied.
• The law of conversation of energy – the algebraic sum of power
in a circuit at any instant of time must be zero:

p=0 (1.6)

From Equation (1.5), the energy absorbed or supplied by an

element from time t0 to t is

t t
w(t ) =  p (t )dt =  v (t )i (t )dt (1.7)
t0 t0

Definition of energy

Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in

joules (J)

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Examples 1.4:
(i) Find the power delivered to an element at t = 5s if the
current entering its positive terminal is
𝑖(𝑡) = 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡𝐴
and the voltage is
di (t )
v(t ) = 3
dt
(ii) A stove element draws 15A when connected to a 120V
line. How long does it take to consume 30 kJ?

Answer:
di (t )
(i) v(t ) = 3
dt
d (5cos 60 t )
=3
dt
= 3(−60 )(5sin 60 t )
= −900 sin 60 t
 p (t ) = i (t )v(t )
= (5cos 60 t )(−900 sin 60 t )
= −4500 sin 60 t cos 60 t W

(ii) 𝑤 = 𝑝𝑡

w w 30  103
t= = = = 16.67 s
p iv (15)(120)

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Example 1.5:
Given
𝑖(𝑡) = 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡𝐴
𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝑠
Find P if
(i) 𝑣(𝑡) = 2𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑉
𝑡
(ii) 𝑣(𝑡) = (10 + 5 ∫0 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡) 𝑉

Answer:
(i) 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑣(𝑡)
= (5 cos 60𝜋𝑡)(2)(5 cos 60𝜋𝑡)
= 50 cos 2 60𝜋𝑡
Thus at 𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝑠
𝑃(5 𝑚𝑠) = 50 cos 2 60𝜋𝑡 (50 × 10−3 )
= 17.27 𝑊

ii) 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑣(𝑡)

𝑡
= (5 cos 60𝜋𝑡)(10 + 5 ∫0 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡)
5
= (5 cos 60𝜋𝑡) (10 + 5 ∫0 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡)

25 𝑡
= (5 cos 60𝜋𝑡) (10 + 60𝜋 sin 60𝜋𝑡 | )
0

17
 25
= (5 cos 60𝜋𝑡) (10 + 60𝜋 sin 60𝜋𝑡)
At 𝑡 = 5𝑚𝑠
𝑃(5𝑚𝑠) = 29.7 𝑊

Example 1.6:
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element as
shown in Figure 1.9

I1 = 5 A P2

12V 6A

+
20V
− P1 P3 8V P4 − 0.2I

Figure 1.9
Answer:
P = iv
P1 = (20V)(-5A)
= -100W (supplied power)
P2 = (12V)(5A)
= 60W (absorbed power)
P3 = (8V)(6A)

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 =48W (absorbed power)

P4 = (8V)(-0.2I)
= (8V)(-0.2)(5A)
= - 8W (supplied power)

Exercise 1.1:
The voltage and current through a circuit element is given by:
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
𝑣(𝑡) = {
80,000𝑡𝑒 −500𝑡 𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
𝑖(𝑡) = {
15𝑡𝑒 −500𝑡 𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
(a) Find the time when the power delivered to the circuit
element is maximum
(b) Find the maximum value of power
(c) Find the total energy delivered to the circuit element

Answer:
(a) Maximum power when
𝑑𝑝(𝑡)
=0
𝑑𝑡

𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑣(𝑡) = (80000 𝑡𝑒 −500𝑡 ) (15 𝑡𝑒 −500𝑡 )

= 1.2 x 106t2e-1000t W

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 dp (t )
= 2.4  106 te −1000t − 1.2  109 t 2 e −1000t = 0
dt
(2.4  106 − 1.2  109 t )te−1000t = 0

Thus, 2.4 × 106 ̶ 1.2 × 109 t = 0

∴ 𝑡 = 2 𝑚𝑠

(b) Pmax = 1.2 × 10 6 t2 e-1000t , at t = 2 ms

= 649.6 mW

∞ ∞
(c) Wtotal=∫0 𝑃 𝑑𝑡 = ∫0 1.2 × 106 𝑡 2 𝑒 −1000𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 2.4 mJ

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1.6 Circuit Elements
Two types of elements:
(i) Active elements
- Capable of generating energy.
- i.e. generators, batteries, op-amp
(ii) Passive elements
- Not capable of generating energy.
- i.e. resistors, capacitors, inductors
Two types of sources (current or voltage):
Type 1:

An ideal independent source is an active element that provides

a specified voltage or current that is completely independent of
other circuit elements.

The symbol for independent sources are shown in Figure 1.10

v +
− V i

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.10: (a) voltage source (b) voltage source (battery) (c)
current source

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Type 2:

An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element

in which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current.

Example of dependent source: transistor, op-amp. The symbols for

dependent source are shown in Figure 1.11

+
v −
− i −

(a) (b)

Figure 1.11: (a) Dependent voltage source (b) Dependent current

source

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For dependent sources, there are 4 possible types of dependent
source:

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) as shown in

Figure 1.12

(a is a constant and v* is a
+
−
− av voltage across a given
element)

Figure 1.12
Let consider Figure 1.13,
a
• • •

+
−
−
3Vab

• • •
b

Figure 1.13
If 𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 2𝑉
∴ 𝑉𝐶𝑉𝑆 = 3𝑉𝑎𝑏 = 3(2) = 6𝑉

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 2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS) as shown in
Figure 1.14

(a is a constant while i*
+
−
− ai  is current flows at a
given element)

Figure 1.14

• • •
I1 I2

+
−
− 4.5I1

• • •

Figure 1.15

Given 𝐼1 = 5𝐴, 𝐼2 = 2𝐴
Thus,
CCVS = 4.5𝐼1
= 4.5(5)
= 22.5 𝑉

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3. A voltage – controlled current source (VCCS) as shown in Figure
1.16

(a is a constant while v* is
a voltage across a given
− av
element)

Figure 1.16
Let consider Figure 1.17
a
• • •  10V

− 3Vca 6V

• • •  15V
c

Figure 1.17
From Figure 1.17
VCCS = 3(15 + 6 – 10)
= 3(11)
= 33 A

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4. A current –controlled current source (CCCS) as shown in
Figure 1.18

(a is a constant while i* is
− ai  a current flow through a
given element)

Figure 1.18
Let consider Figure 1.19
• • •
I1 I2

− 4I 2

• • •

Figure 1.19
Given 𝐼1 = 3𝐴, 𝐼2 = 4𝐴
Thus ,
CCCS = 4(4)
=16A

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Summary

𝑑𝑞(𝑡)
Current : 𝑖(𝑡) = (A)
𝑑𝑡

𝑡
Charge : 𝑞(𝑡) = ∫𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (C)
0

voltage : 𝑣𝑎𝑏 = 𝑣𝑎 − 𝑣𝑏
𝑑𝑤(𝑡)
𝑣(𝑡) = (V)
𝑑𝑞

𝑑𝑤(𝑡) 𝑑𝑤(𝑡) 𝑑𝑞(𝑡)

Power : 𝑝(𝑡) = = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

𝑝 = 𝑣(𝑡)𝑖(𝑡)
∑𝑝 = 0 (W)

𝑡
energy 𝑤(𝑡) = ∫𝑡 𝑝(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0

𝑡
= ∫𝑡 𝑖(𝑡)𝑣(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 (J)
0

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Independent Source

+ −
Voltage
source
Current
source

Dependent Source

VCVS
+
−
− or
CCVS

VCCS
− or
CCCS

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