M. J.

Roberts - 10/7/06

Chapter 4 - Continuous-Time System Properties

Solutions
Modeling CT Systems

1. In a chemical molecule the atoms are mechanically coupled by interatomic binding

forces. A salt molecule consists of one sodium atom bound to one chlorine atom.
The atomic mass of sodium is 22.99 and the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 and
one atomic mass unit is 1.6604  10
27 kg. Model the molecule as two masses
coupled by a spring whose spring constant is K s = 1.2
1059 N/m . In a system of
this type the two atoms can accelerate relative to each other but (in the absence of
external forces) the center of mass of the system does not accelerate. It is convenient
to let the center of mass be the origin of the coordinate system describing the atom’s
positions. Let the unstretched length of the spring be
0 and let the position of the
()
sodium atom be ys t and let the position of the chlorine atom be yc t . Write two ()
coupled differential equations of motion for this mechanical system, combine them
into one differential equation in terms of the amount of spring stretch
() () ()
y t = ys t
yc t

0 and show that the resonant radian frequency is

ms + mc
Ks where ms is the mass of the sodium atom and mc is the mass of the
ms mc
chlorine atom and find the resonant frequency for a salt molecule. (This model is
unrealistic because salt molecules rarely form in isolation. Salt occurs in crystals and
the other molecules in the crystal also exert forces on the molecule making the
realistic analysis much more complicated.)

() () ()
ms ys t + K s  ys t
yc t

0  = 0
m y( t )
K
c c s
 y (t )
y (t )


 s c 0
=0


() () ()
Let y t = ys t
yc t

0 . Then

() ()
ms ys t + K s y t = 0
m y( t )
K y ( t ) = 0
c c s

Adding equations,
() ()
ms y

s t + mc y

c t = 0 .

Solutions 4-1

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Define the total mass as M = ms + mc and the center of mass as

()
ms ys t + mc yc t( ) . Then M y


()
ycm t =
ms + mc cm (t ) = 0 , confirming that the center of mass does
() () ()
not accelerate. Divide ms y

s t + k y t = 0 by ms and mc yc t
K s y t = 0 by mc and ()
take the difference of the resulting equations.

() ( ) ()
ys t + K s / ms y t = 0

 y( t )
( K / m ) y ( t ) = 0 
c s c

y( t )
y( t ) + K (1 / m + 1 / m ) y ( t ) = 0

 s
  c s s c

()
y  t

Therefore
ms + mc
()
y

t + K s
ms mc
()
y t = 0.

ms + mc
The eigenvalues are
1,2 = ± K s . In this exercise
ms mc

ms + mc 22.99 + 35.45
=  1.6604  10
27 kg = 1.19  10
28 kg . Therefore the
ms mc 22.99  35.45

eigenvalues are ±3.78
1015 rad/s which corresponds to a resonant frequency of 6
1014
Hz.

2. ()
Write the differential equation for the voltage v C t in the circuit in Figure E-0 for
time t > 0 then find an expression for the current i ( t ) for time t > 0 .

R1 = 2 Ω C=3F
i s(t) iC (t)
- +
i(t) vC(t)
Vs = 10 V t=0 R2 = 6 Ω

Figure E-0

() () ()
i t = i s t + iC t , ()
is t =
Vs
R1
, ()
iC t = C
d
( ( ))
v t
dt C

Solutions 4-2

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ()
v C t + iC t R2 = 0 , ()
v C t + R2C
d
( ( ))
v t =0
dt C

()
v C t = Ke
 t ,
= 1 / R2C , ()
v C t = Ke

t / R2 C

t


()
v C 0 =
10 = Ke
R2 C
= K  K =
10 , ()
v C t =
10e

t / R2 C

()
iC t = C
d
dt
( ( ))
vC t =
10
R2C

t / R C
Ce 2 =
10
t / R2 C
R2
e

5
18t
()
Vs
10
t / R2 C
i t = + e = 5+ e
R1 R2 3

3. ()
The water tank in Figure E-3 is filled by an inflow x t and is emptied by an outflow
()
y t . The outflow is controlled by a valve which offers resistance R to the flow of
()
water out of the tank. The water depth in the tank is d t and the surface area of the
water is A, independent of depth (cylindrical tank). The outflow is related to the
water depth (head) by
()
()
d t
y t = .
R

s
The tank is 1.5 m high with a 1m diameter and the valve resistance is 10 .
m2
(a) Write the differential equation for the water depth in terms of the tank dimensions
and valve resistance.
(b) If the inflow is 0.05m 3 /s , at what water depth will the inflow and outflow rates be
equal, making the water depth constant?

(c) Find an expression for the depth of water versus time after 1 m 3 of water is
dumped into an empty tank.
m3
(d) If the tank is initially empty at time, t = 0 , and the inflow is a constant 0.2
s
after time, t = 0 , at what time will the tank start to overflow?

Solutions 4-3

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Surface area, A
Inflow, x(t)

d(t)

R Valve

Outflow, y(t)

Figure E-3 Water tank with inflow and outflow

(a)
()
()
d t
y t =
R

d 
() () ()
 Ad t  = x t
y t
dt 

volume

()
() ()
d t
A d t = x t

R

( )=x t
() ()
d t
A d
t +
R

(b) ()
For the water height to be constant, d
t = 0 . Then

() ()
d t = R x t = 10
s
m2

0.05
m3
s
= 0.5m

(c) Dumping 1 m 3 of water into an empty tank is exciting this system with a unit
()
impulse of water inflow. The impulse response, h t , of the system is the
solution of

( ) =

() (t )
h t
A h t +
R
The solution is
()
h t = Ke
t / AR u t . ()

Solutions 4-4

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

We can find K by finding the initial water depth in response to 1 m 3 being

suddenly dumped in. The surface area is 0.7854 m 2 . Therefore the initial
depth is 1.273 m and

() ()
h t = 1.273e
t / AR u t = 1.273e
t / 7.854 u t () .

(d) The response to a step of flow is the convolution of the impulse response
with the step excitation.
() () ()
d t = h t
x t = 1.273et / AR u t
0.2 u t () ()
 

()
d t = 0.2546  e
 / AR
() ( )
u  u t
 d = 0.2546  e
 / AR u t
 d ( )

 0

()
For t < 0 , d t = 0

For t > 0 ,

( )
t

()
t
d t = 0.2546  e
 / AR d =
0.2546 AR  e
 / AR  =
0.2546 AR 1
e
t / AR
0
0
For all time,
() (
d t = 2 1
e
t / 7 /854 u t ) () .

Solving for a depth of 1.5 m,

( )
1.5 = 2 1
e
t / 7.854  0.25 = e
t / 7.854 
1.386 =
t / 7.854  t = 10.886 s

4. As derived in the text, a simple pendulum is approximately described for small

angles,
, by the differential equation,

()
mL  t + mg  t
x t () ()
where m is the mass of the pendulum, L is the length of the massless rigid rod
supporting the mass and
is the angular deviation of the pendulum from vertical.
(a) Find the general form of the impulse response of this system.

()
mL h t + mgh t
 t () ()
The form of the homogeneous solution is

() (
 h t = K h1e j g/ Lt
+ K h 2 e
j g/ Lt
) u (t )
or, more conveniently,
()

h t =  K h1 cos
 ( )
g/ Lt + K h 2 sin ( )
g/ Lt  u t .

()
Solutions 4-5

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

There can be no discontinuity or impulse in the impulse response therefore this is

also the impulse response. Integrate the differential equation once through zero.

mL ( )
g/ LK h 2
1  K h 2 = L / g / mL = 1 / g L / m

Now integrate again through zero.

K h1 = 0 .

Therefore

()
h t =
1
m
1 / g L sin ( )
g/ Lt u t()
(b) If the mass is 2 kg and the rod length is 0.5 m, at what cyclic frequency will
the pendulum oscillate?

1 9.8
The cyclic frequency is = 0.704 Hz . The mass is irrelevant.
2
1 / 2

5. A block of aluminum is heated to a temperature of 100 °C. It is then dropped into a

flowing stream of water which is held at a constant temperature of 10°C. After 10
seconds the temperature of the ball is 60°C. (Aluminum is such a good heat
conductor that its temperature is essentially uniform throughout its volume during the
cooling process.) The rate of cooling is proportional to the temperature difference
between the ball and the water.

(a) Write a differential equation for this system with the temperature of the water
as the excitation and the temperature of the block as the response.

(b) Compute the time constant of the system.

(c) Find the impulse response of the system and, from it, the step response.

(d) If the same block is cooled to 0 °C and dropped into a flowing stream of
water at 80 °C, at time, t = 0 , at what time will the temperature of the block reach
75°C?

The controlling differential equation is

d
() (
T t = K Tw
Ta t
dt a
( ))
or
1 d
()
T t + Ta t = Tw
K dt a
()
where Ta is the temperature of the aluminum ball and Tw is the temperature of the
water. The solution is
Solutions 4-6

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

()
Ta t = 90e
Kt + 10

We can find the constant, K, by using the temperature after 10 seconds,

( )
Ta 10 = 60 = 90e
10 K + 10  K = 0.0588 .

The impulse response is the solution of the equation,

1 d
K dt
() () ()
h t +h t =
t .
The form of the solution is
()
h t = K h e
Kt u t()
Integrating both sides of the differential equation through t = 0 ,

1
K
( ) K
h 0+ = 1 = h
K h = K
K
Therefore
() ()
h t = Ke
Kt u t = 0.0588e
0.0588t u t ()
and the time constant is 1 / 0.0588 = 17 s .

The unit step response is the integral of the impulse response,

() ( ) ()
h
1 t = 1
e
0.0588t u t .

The response is the response to a step of 80 °C .

() () (
Ta t = 80 h
1 t = 80 1
e
0.0588t u t .) ()
To find the time at which the temperature is 75 °C, t75 , solve

( )
Ta t75 = 75 = 80 1
e (
0.0588t75
) u (t ) .
75

Solving,
t75 = 47.153 .

Properties of CT Systems

6. ()
Show that a system with excitation x t and response y t described by()
( ) ( ( ))
y t =u x t

Solutions 4-7

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

is non-linear, time invariant, stable and non-invertible.

Homogeneity:
() () ( ) ( ( ))
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = u g t .

Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = u ( K g ( t ))
K y ( t ) = K u ( g ( t )) .
2 2 1

Not homogeneous

Additivity:
() ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = u g t .( ) ( ( ))
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = u ( h ( t )) .
2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) .
3

Then y ( t ) = u ( g ( t ) + h ( t ))
y ( t ) + y ( t ) = u ( g ( t )) + u ( h ( t ))
3 1 2

Not additive

Since it is not homogeneous and not additive, it is not linear.

It is also not incrementally linear because incremental changes in the excitation do

not produce proportional incremental changes in the response.

It is statically non-linear because it is non-linear without memory (lack of memory

proven below).

Time Invariance:
() () ( ) ( ( ))
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = u g t .
Let x ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .
2 0

Then y ( t ) = u ( g ( t
t )) = y ( t
t ) .
2 0 1 0

Time Invariant

Stability:
The unit step function can only have the values, zero or one, therefore any bounded
(or unbounded) excitation produces a bounded response.
Stable

Causality:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at time, t = t0 and
not on any future values.
Causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at time, t = t0 and
not on any past values.
System has no memory.

Solutions 4-8

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Invertibility:
There are many value of the excitation that all cause a response of zero and there are
many values of the excitation that all cause a response of one. Therefore the system
is not invertible.

7. ()
Show that a system with excitation x t and response y t described by ()
() ( ) (
y t = x t
5
x 3
t )
is linear but not causal and not invertible.

Homogeneity:
() () () ( ) ( )
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t
5
g 3
t .
Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = K g ( t
5)
K g ( 3
t ) = K y ( t ) .
2 2 1
Homogeneous

Additivity:
() () () ( ) ( )
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t
5
g 3
t .
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = h ( t
5)
h ( 3
t ) .
2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) .
3

Then y ( t ) = g ( t
5) + h ( t
5)
g ( 3
t )
h ( 3
t ) = y ( t ) + y ( t )
3 1 2
Additive

Since it is both homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear, since any linear system is incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:
() () () ( ) ( )
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t
5
g 3
t .
Let x ( t ) = g ( t
t ) . Then y ( t ) = g ( t
t
5)
g ( 3
t + t ) = y ( t
t ) .
2 0 2 0 0 1 0
Time Invariant

Stability:
()
If x t is bounded then x t
5 and x 3
t ( ) ( ) are bounded and so is
() ( ) (
y t = x t
5
x 3
t . )
Stable

Causality:
() ( ) ()
At time, t = 0 , y 0 = x
5
x 3 . Therefore the response at time, t = 0 , depends
on the excitation at a later time, t = 3 .
Not Causal
Solutions 4-9

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Memory:
() ( ) ()
At time, t = 0 , y 0 = x
5
x 3 . Therefore the response at time, t = 0 , depends
on the excitation at a previous time, t =
5 .
System has memory.

Invertibility:
A counterexample will demonstrate that the system is not invertible. Let the
()
excitation be a constant, K. Then the response is y t = K
K = 0 . This is the
response, no matter what K is. Therefore when the output is a constant zero, the
input cannot be determined.
Not Invertible.

8. ()
Show that a system with excitation x t and response y t described by ()
()
y t =x t/2 ( )
is linear, time variant and non-causal.

Homogeneity:
() () () ( )
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t / 2 .
Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = K g ( t / 2 ) = K y ( t ) .
2 2 1
Homogeneous

Additivity:
() () () ( )
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t / 2 .
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = h ( t / 2 ) .
2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = g ( t / 2 ) + h ( t / 2 ) = y ( t ) + y ( t )
3 3 1 2
Additive

Since it is both homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear, since any linear system is incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:
() () () ( )
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t / 2 .
 t
t0 
() ( ) () ( )
Let x 2 t = g t
t0 . Then y2 t = g t / 2
t0  y1 t
t0 = g 
 2 
( . )
Time Variant

Stability:

Solutions 4-10

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ()
If x t is bounded then y t is bounded.
Stable

Causality:
( ) ( )
At time, t =
2 , y
2 = x
1 . Therefore the response at time, t =
2 , depends on
the excitation at a later time, t =
1.
Not Causal

Memory:
() ()
At time, t = 2 , y 2 = x 1 . Therefore the response at time, t = 2 , depends on the
excitation at a previous time, t = 1.
System has memory.

Invertibility:
The system excitation at any arbitrary time, t = t0 , is uniquely determined by the
system response at time, t = 2t0 .
Invertible.

9. ()
Show that a system with excitation x t and response y t described by ()
() ( ) ()
y t = cos 2
t x t

is time variant, BIBO stable, static and non-invertible.

Homogeneity:
() () () ( ) ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = cos 2
t g t .
Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = cos ( 2
t ) K g ( t ) = K y ( t ) .
2 2 1
Homogeneous

Additivity:
() () () ( ) ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = cos 2
t g t .
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = cos ( 2
t ) h ( t ) .
2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = cos ( 2
t )  g ( t ) + h ( t )  = y ( t ) + y ( t )

3 3 1 2

Additive

Since it is both homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear, since any linear system is incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:
() () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = cos 2
t g t . ( ) ()
Solutions 4-11

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ( )
Let x 2 t = g t
t0 .
Then y ( t ) = cos ( 2 t ) g ( t
t )  y ( t
t ) = cos ( 2 ( t
t )) g ( t
t ) .
2 0 1 0 0 0

Time Variant

Stability:
() ()
If x t is bounded then y t is bounded because it is multiplied by a cosine which is
bounded.
Stable

Causality:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at that same time and
not on the excitation at any later time.
Causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at that same time and
not on the excitation at any earlier time.
System has no memory (static).

Invertibility:
This system is not invertible because when the cosine function is zero the unique
relationship between x and y is lost; any x produces the same y, zero.
Not Invertible.

10. Show that a system whose response is the magnitude of its excitation is non-linear,
BIBO stable, causal and non-invertible.

()
y t = x t ()
Homogeneity:
() () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t .

Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = K g ( t ) =
2 2 ()
K y1 t .
If K is negative, K y ( t )
K y ( t ) .
1 1
Not Homogeneous.

Additivity:
() ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t . () ()
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = h ( t ) .
2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t )
y ( t ) + y ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t )
3 3 1 2

Not Additive

Since it is neither homogeneous nor additive, it is also nonlinear.

Solutions 4-12

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

It is not incrementally linear because it is not linear except for the addition of a
constant.

It is statically non-linear because it is non-linear without memory. (No memory is

proven below.)

Time Invariance:
() () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g t .

Let x ( t ) = g ( t
t ) . Then y ( t ) = g ( t
t ) = y ( t
t ) .
2 0 2 0 1 0

Time Invariant

Stability:
() ()
If x t is bounded then y t is bounded.
Stable

Causality:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at that same time and
not on the excitation at any later time.
Causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at that same time and
not on the excitation at any earlier time.
System has no memory (static).

Invertibility:
Any response, y, can be caused by either x or –x.
Not Invertible.

11. Show that the system in Figure E-11 is linear, time invariant, BIBO unstable, and
dynamic.
0.1
x(t) +
-

+ 14 ∫
+

+ -7 ∫
+
25 ∫
y(t)
Figure E-11 A CT system

The differential equation of the system is

() () () ()
10 y t
14 y t + 7 y t
25 y t = x t . ()
Solutions 4-13

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Homogeneity:
() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then 10 y1 t
14 y1 t + 7 y1 t
25 y1 t = g t . () ()
Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then 10 y ( t )
14 y ( t ) + 7 y ( t )
25 y ( t ) = K g ( t ) .
2 2 2 2 2
If we multiply the first equation by K, we get
() ()
10K y1 t
14K y1 t + 7K y1 t
25K y1 t = K g t () () ()
Therefore

() () ()
10K y1 t
14K y1 t + 7K y1 t
25K y1 t = 10 y
2 () ()
t
14 y2 t + 7 y2 t
25 y2 t () () ()

This can only be true for all time for an arbitrary excitation if y2 t = K y1 t . () ()
Homogeneous

Additivity:
() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then 10 y1 t
14 y1 t + 7 y1 t
25 y1 t = g t . () ()
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then 10 y ( t )
14 y ( t ) + 7 y ( t )
25 y ( t ) = h ( t ) .
2 2 2 2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) . Then 10 y ( t )
14 y ( t ) + 7 y ( t )
25 y ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t )

3 3 3 3 3
Adding the first two equations,

()
10  y1 t + y
2 () () () () () ()
t 
14  y1 t + y2 t  + 7  y1 t + y2 t 
25  y1 t | + y2 t  = g t + h t() () ()

Therefore
()
10  y1 t + y
2 () () () () ()
t 
14  y1 t + y2 t  + 7  y1 t + y2 t 
25  y1 t | + y2 t  () ()
= 10 y
3 () ()
t
14 y3 t + 7 y3 t
25 y3 t () ()
  
() () () () () ()
10  y1 t | + y2 t 
14  y1 t | + y2 t  + 7  y1 t | + y2 t 
25  y1 t | + y2 t  () ()
= 10 y
3 () () ()
t
14 y3 t + 7 y3 t
25 y3 t ()
This can only be true for all time for an arbitrary excitation if y3 t = y1 t + y2 t . () () ()
Additive

Since it is homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:

Solutions 4-14

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then 10 y1 t
14 y1 t + 7 y1 t
25 y1 t = g t . () ()
Let x ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .
2 0

Then 10 y( t )
14 y ( t ) + 7 y ( t )
25 y ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .

2 2 2 2 0

The first equation can be written as

( ) ( ) ( )
10 y1 t
t0
14 y1 t
t0 + 7 y1 t
t0
25 y1 t
t0 = g t
t0 ( ) ( )
Therefore
( ) ( ) ( )
10 y1 t
t0
14 y1 t
t0 + 7 y1 t
t0
25 y1 t
t0 ( )
= 10 y( t )
14 y ( t ) + 7 y ( t )
25 y ( t )
2 2 2 2

This can only be true for all time if y2 t = y1 t
t0 . () ( )

Time Invariant

Stability:

The characteristic equation is 10 3
14 2 + 7 
25 = 0 . The

eigenvalues are

1 =1.7895

2 =-0.1948 + j1.1658

3 =-0.1948 - j1.1658

So the homogeneous solution is of the form,

()
y t = K1e1.7895t + K 2 e( )
-0.1948 + j1.1658 t
+ K 3e( )
-0.1948 - j1.1658 t
.

If there is no excitation, but the zero-excitation response is not zero, the response will
grow without bound as time increases.
Unstable

Causality:
The system equation can be rewritten as

 t 3 2 t 3 2 
( )
    x 1 d 1d 2 d 3 + 25    y 1 d 1d 2 d 3
1 
( )
()
y t = 



10 
t 2




t

 ( )

7   y 1 d 1d 2 + 14  y 1 d 1
( )





Solutions 4-15

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

So the response at any time, t = t0 , depends on the excitation at times, t < t0 and not
on any future values.
Causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends on the excitation at times, t < t0 .
System has memory.

Invertibility:

The system equation,

() () () () ()
10 y  t
14 y  t + 7 y  t
25 y t = x t

expresses the excitation in terms of the response and its derivatives. Therefore the
excitation is uniquely determined by the response.
Invertible.

System Models

12. The suspension of a car can be modeled by the mass-spring-dashpot system of

Figure E-12 Let the mass, m, of the car be 1500 kg, let the spring constant, K s , be
75000 N/m and let the shock absorber (dashpot) viscosity coefficient, K d , be
20000 N
s/m .

At a certain length, d0 , of the spring, it is unstretched and uncompressed and exerts

no force. Let that length be 0.6 m.

(a) () ()
What is the distance, y t
x t , when the car is at rest?

(b) () () ()
Define a new variable z t = y t
x t
constant such that, when the
()
system is at rest, z t = 0 and write a describing equation in z and x which describes
an LTI system. Then find the impulse response.

(c) The effect of the car striking a curb can be modeled by letting the road
surface height change discontinuously by the height of the curb, h c . Let
()
h c = 0.15 m . Graph z t versus time after the car strikes a curb.

Solutions 4-16

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Automobile Chassis

Shock
Spring
Absorber
y(t)

x(t)

Figure E-12 Car suspension model

Using the basic principle, F = ma , we can write

() ()
K s  y t
x t
d0  + K d
d
() ()
 y t
x t  + mg =
m y t
dt   ()
or
() () () () ()
m y t + K d y t + K s y t = K d x  t + K s x t + K s d0
mg .

At rest all the derivatives are zero and

( () () )
K s y t
x t
d0 + mg = 0 .

Solving,
K s d0
mg 75000  0.6
1500  9.8
() ()
y t
x t =
Ks
=
75000
= 0.404 m

The describing equation is

() () () () ()
m y t + K d y t + K s y t = K d x  t + K s x t + K s d0
mg .

which can be rewritten as

() () () () ()
m y t + K d  y t
x  t  + K s  y t
x t 
K s d0 + mg = 0
or
() () () () ()
m y t + K d  y t
x  t  + K s  y t
x t
d0 + mg/ K s  = 0

() () () () ()
Let z t = y t
x t
d0 + mg/ K s . Then y

t = z

t + x

t and ()
() () () ()
m  z

t + x

t  + K d z
t + K s z t = 0
or
() () ()
m z  t + K d z  t + K s z t =
m x  t ()
Solutions 4-17

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

This equation is in a form which describes an LTI system. We can find its impulse
response. After time, t = 0 , the impulse response is the homogenous solution. The
eigenvalues are

K d ± K d2
4mK s Kd K d2 Ks
1,2 = =
± 2

=
6.667 ± j2.357 .
2m 2m 4m m

The homogeneous solution is

()
h t = K h1e
1t
+ K h 2e
2 t
= K h1e(

6.667 + j 2.357 t )
+ K h 2 e( )

6.667
j 2.357 t
.

Since the system is underdamped another (equivalent) form of homogeneous

solution will be more convenient,
() (
h t = e
6.667t  K h1 cos 2.357t + K h 2 sin 2.357t  .) ( )
The impulse response can have a discontinuity at t = 0 and an impulse but no
higher-order singularity there. Therefore the general form of the impulse response is

() () (
h t = K t + e
6.667t  K h1 cos 2.357t + K h 2 sin 2.357t  u t ) ( ) ()
Integrating both sides of the describing equation,
0+

( ( ) ( )) + K ( h (0 )
h (0 )) + K  h (t ) dt = 0 .
+
m h 0
h 0

d
+

s
0

(The integral of the doublet, which is the derivative of the impulse excitation, is zero.)
Since the impulse response and all its derivatives are zero before time, t = 0 , it
follows then that
0+

( ) +
m h 0 + K d h 0 ( ) + K  h (t ) dt = 0
+
s
0

and
(
m
6.667K h1 + 2.357K h 2 + K d K h1 + K s K = 0 .)
Integrating the describing equation a second time,

0+

mh 0 ( ) + K  h (t ) dt = 0
+
d
0

or
mK h1 + K d K = 0 .

Integrating the describing equation a third time,

Solutions 4-18

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

0+

()
m  h t dt =
m
0

or
mK =
m  K =
1 .

Solving for the other two constants, K h1 = K d / m and

 K  K
m 
6.667 d + 2.357K h 2  + K d d
K s = 0
 m  m
or
K s / m
K d2 / m2 + 6.667K d / m
Kh 2 =
2.357

Kd
m
Therefore
() () ( )
h t =
 t + e
6.667t 13.333cos 2.357t
16.497 sin 2.357t  u t ( ) ()

The response to a step of size 0.15 is then the convolution,

()
z t = 0.15u t
h t() ()
or

{ () ) ( )} u (t
 ) d


() ( )
z t = 0.15 
  + e
6.667 13.333cos 2.357
16.497 sin 2.357  u  (



{ () )} (


() ( ) (
z t = 0.15 
  + e
6.667 13.333cos 2.357
16.497 sin 2.357  u t
 d )
0

()
For t < 0 , z t = 0 .

For t > 0 ,

using

( )
 e sin b x d x =
ax ea x
( ) ( )
 a sin b x
bcos b x 
a 2 + b2  

( ) ea x
( )
 e cos b x d x = a 2 + b2
 a cos b x + bsin b x 
ax
( )
Solutions 4-19

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

we get
t
 e
6.667 
 13.333  ( )

6.667 cos 2.357 + 2.357 sin 2.357 
 ( ) 
() ()
z t =
0.15u t + 0.15 

50
e
6.667



16.497
50 
( )

6.667 sin 2.357
2.357 cos 2.357 ( ) 
  0

or
 e
6.667t 
13.333
50  ( )

6.667 cos 2.357t + 2.357 sin 2.357t 
 ( ) 
 

6.667t
 
() ()
z t =
0.15u t + 0.15 
16.497
e
50
(

6.667 sin 2.357t
2.357 cos 2.357t
 ) ( ) 

 

6.667
2.357 

13.333 50 + 16.497 50 
 

() () { ( ) (
z t =
0.15u t + 0.15 e
3.333t  2.812sin 2.357t
cos 2.357t  + 1 u t ) } ()
or
() ( ) (
z t = 0.15e
3.333t  2.812sin 2.357t
cos 2.357t  u t ) ()
z(t)
0.1

t
2

-0.2

13. Pharmacokinetics is the study of how drugs are absorbed into, distributed through,
metabolized by and excreted from the human body. Some drug processes can be
approximately modeled by a “one compartment” model of the body in which V is
()
the volume of the compartment, C t is the drug concentration in that compartment,
ke is a rate constant for excretion of the drug from the compartment and k0 is the
infusion rate at which the drug enters the compartment.

(a) Write a differential equation in which the infusion rate is the excitation and
the drug concentration is the response.
(b) Let the parameter values be ke = 0.4 hr
1 , V = 20 l and k0 = 200mg/hr
(where “l” is the symbol for “liter”). If the initial drug concentration is
()
C 0 = 10mg/l , plot the drug concentration as a function of time (in hours) for the
first 10 hours of infusion. Find the solution as the sum of the zero-excitation
response and the zero-state response.

The differential equation is

Solutions 4-20

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

V
d
dt
( ( ))
C t = k0
Vke C t ()
or
d
dt
( ( )) ()
k
C t + ke C t = 0
V
The eigenvalue is –0.4 and the zero-excitation response is

()
C t = 10e
0.4t mg/l (“t” in hours).

The impulse response (to a unit impulse of “infusion rate”) is

e
0.4t
()
h t =
20
()
u t mg/l . The step response to an infusion rate of k0 = 200mg/hr is

() ( )
then C t = 25 1
e
0.4t mg/l . The sum of the two responses is

() ( ( )) (
C t = 10e
0.4t + 25 1
e
0.4t mg/l = 25
15e
0.4t mg/l .)
C (t)

25

t (hours)
10

14. A well-stirred vat has been fed for a long time by two streams of liquid, fresh water at
0.2 cubic meters per second and concentrated blue dye at 0.1 cubic meters per
second. The vat contains 10 cubic meters of this mixture and the mixture is being
drawn from the vat at a rate of 0.3 cubic meters per second to maintain a constant
volume. The blue dye is suddenly changed to red dye at the same flow rate. At what
time after the switch does the mixture drawn from the vat contain a ratio of red to
blue dye of 99:1?

()
Let the concentration of red dye be denoted by Cr t and the concentration of blue
()
dye be denoted by Cb t . The concentration of water is constant throughout at 2 / 3.
The rates of change of the dye concentrations are governed by

d
dt
( ( )) ()
VCb t =
Cb t f draw

d
dt
( ( )) ()
VCr t = f r
Cr t f draw

where V is the constant volume, 10 cubic meters, f draw is the flow rate of the draw
from the vat and f r is the flow rate of red dye into the tank. Solving the two
differential equations,
Solutions 4-21

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ( )
Cb t = 1 / 3 e ( draw )

f /V t

and
Cr t = () 1
3
(1
e ( draw ) .

f /V t
)
Then the ratio of red to blue dye concentration is

( ) = 3 (1
e ) = 1
e (
1 (

f draw /V t )
Cr t
f draw /V t )
= e( draw )
1 .
f /V t

C (t ) 1 (
f draw /V t ) e (

f draw /V t )
b e
3

Setting that ratio to 99 and solving for t99 ,

99 = e( )

1  t99 = 153.5 seconds
0.3/10 t99

15. Some large auditoriums have a noticeable echo or reverberation. While a little
reverberation is desirable, too much is undesirable. Let the response of an
auditorium to an acoustic impulse of sound be

()
h t =  e
n t
n / 5 . ( )
n=0

We would like to design a signal processing system that will remove the effects of
reverberation. In later chapters on transform theory we will be able to show that the
compensating system that can remove the reverberations has an impulse response of
the form,


()
h c t =  g  n   t
n / 5 . ( )
n=0

Find the function, g
 n  .

Removal of the reverberation is equivalent to making the overall impulse response,

()
h 0 t , an impulse. That means that

  
() () ()
h o t = h t
h c t =   e n t  n / 5 ( )

  g  m   t  m / 5 ( )
= K ( t )
 n=0   m=0 

 

  e  (t  n / 5)
g  m  (t  m / 5) = K (t )
n

n=0 m=0

Solutions 4-22

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

 
 n + m

e
n
g  m    t

 5 
= K t()
n=0 m=0

 
 n + m

 g m  e
n  t
5  = K t
 ()
m=0 n=0

() ( ) (
g 0  t + e
1 t
1 / 5 + e
2 t
2 / 5 +

 

) 

( ) ( ) (
+ g 1  t
1 / 5 + e
1 t
2 / 5 + e
2 t
3 / 5 +



 )

 = K t ()
( ) ( ) (
+ g  2
 t
2 / 5 + e  t
3 / 5 + e  t
4 / 5 +

 

1
2

 )
 

g 0  = K
g 1 + e
1 g 0  = 0  g 1 =
Ke
1
g  2  + e
1 g 1 + e
2 g 0  = 0  g  2  = Ke
2
Ke
2 = 0
g 3 + e
1 g  2  + e
2 g 1 + e
3 g 0  = 0  g 3 = Ke
3
Ke
3 = 0


So the compensating impulse response is
()
h c t = K t
Ke
1 t
1 / 5() ( )
and the function, g, is

g  n  = K  n 
Ke
1  n
1 .

16. A car rolling on a hill can be modeled as shown in Figure E-16. The excitation is the
()
force f t for which a positive value represents accelerating the car forward with the
motor and a negative value represents slowing the car by braking action. As it rolls,
the car experiences drag due to various frictional phenomena which can be
approximately modeled by a coefficient k f which multiplies the car’s velocity to
produce a force which tends to slow the car when it moves in either direction. The
mass of the car is m and gravity acts on it at all times tending to make it roll down the
hill in the absence of other forces. Let the mass m of the car be 1000 kg, let the
N
s

friction coefficient k f be 5 and let the angle
be .
m 12

(a) Write a differential equation for this system with the force f t () as the
()
excitation and the position of the car, y t as the response.

Solutions 4-23

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

(b) If the nose of the car is initially at position y 0 = 0 with an initial ()

()
velocity,  y
t  = 10
t =0
m
s
and no applied acceleration or braking force, graph the

()
velocity of the car y
t for positive time.

(c) ()
If a constant force f t of 200 N is applied to the car what is its terminal
velocity ?

f(t)
y(t)

θ
(θ)
sin
mg
Figure E-16 Car on an inclined plane

Summing forces,
() ()
f t
mg sin 
k f y t = m y t () ()
or
() ()
m y t + k f y t + mg sin
= f t ( ) ()
The zero-excitation response can be found by setting the force, f t , to zero yielding ()
() ()
m y t + k f y t =
mg sin  ()
kf

()

t
The homogeneous solution is y h t = K h1 + K h 2 e m . The particular solution must
be in the form of a linear function of t, to satisfy the differential equation. Choosing
the form,

()
y p t = K pt

( ) ()
and solving, K p =
mg/ k f sin  . Then the total zero-excitation response is

( ) ()
kf

()

t
y t = K h1 + K h 2 e m
mg/ k f sin  t
Using the initial conditions,
()
y 0 = 0 = K h1 + K h 2
and

Solutions 4-24

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ( ) (
y 0 = 10 =
k f / m K h 2
mg/ k f sin  . ) ()
Solving,
( ) g sin ( )
( m / k )10 =
1.0146  10
2000 =
1.0346  10
2
Kh 2 =
m / k f f
5 5

and K h1 = 1.0346
105

() (
y t = 1.0346  105 1
e
t / 200
507.28t )
1.0346  105
t / 200
()
y t =
200
e ( )

507.28 = 517.28e
t / 200
507.28 = 517.28 e
t / 200
1 + 10 ( )
y’(t)
t
1000

-550

The differential equation is

() ()
m y t + k f y t + mg sin
= f t ( ) ()
We can re-write the equation as

() () ()
m y t + k f y t = f t
mg sin  ()
treating the force due to gravity as part of the excitation. Then the impulse response
is the solution of
()
m h t + k f h t =
t () ()
which is of the form,

t
kf

()
h t =  K h1 + K h 2 e m  u t () .
 

Integrating both sides of the differential equation through t = 0 we get

( ) ( ) (( ) )
m h 0+ + k f h 0+ = 1 = m
k f / m K h 2 + k f K h1 + K h 2 ( )
Integrating a second time yields,

( )
m h 0+ = 0 = m K h1 + K h 2 ( ) .
Solving,

Solutions 4-25

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

k f 0 
K h1 
1 
  = 
 1 1   K h 2  0 
we get
K h1 = 1 / k f , K h 2 =
1 / k f .
So the impulse response is
1
e
(

kf /m t )
()
h t =
kf
u t () .

()
Now, if we say that the force, f t , is a step of size, 200 N, the excitation of the
system is

() ()
x t = 200 u t
mg sin  () .

But this is going to cause a problem. The problem is that the term,
mg sin  , is a ()
constant, therefore presumed to have acted on the system for all time before time,
t = 0 . The implication from that is that the position at time, t = 0 , is at infinity.
Since we are only interested in the final velocity, not position, we can assume that the
()
car was held in place at y t = 0 until the force was applied and gravity was allowed
to act on the car. That makes the excitation,
()
x t =  200
mg sin   u t ( ) ()
and the response is
1 e
( )
 kf /m t

() () ()
y t = x t
h t =  200  mg sin   u t
( ) () kf
()
u t

or
200
mg sin  () t
( )  d
()
y t =
kf

 1
e

kf /m 


0
or
() ()
t
200
mg sin   m
( k / m ) 200
mg sin   m
( k f / m) t m

y t =()  + e f  =  t + e

kf  kf 0 kf  kf kf 

The terminal velocity is the derivative of position as time approaches infinity which,
in this case is
200
mg sin  () 200
2536.43
( )
y + =
kf
=
5
=
467.3 m/s .

Obviously a force of 200 N is insufficient to move the car forward and its terminal
velocity is negative indicating it is rolling backward down the hill.

Solutions 4-26

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

System Properties

17. A CT system is described by the block diagram in Figure E-17.

0.25
x(t) + -

+ 1
∫
+

3 ∫
y(t)
Figure E-17 A CT system

Classify the system as to homogeneity, additivity, linearity, time-invariance, stability,

causality, memory, and invertibility.

() ()
4 y

t + y
t + 3y t = x t () ()
Homogeneity:
() () () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then 4 y1

t + y1
t + 3y1 t = g t .
Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then 4 y

( t ) + y
( t ) + 3y ( t ) = K g ( t ) .
2 2 2 2
If we multiply the first equation by K, we get

() ()
4K y1

t + K y1
t + 3K y1 t = K g t () ()
Therefore

() () ()
4K y1

t + K y1
t + 3K y1 t = 4 y

2 t + y
2 t + 3y2 t () () ()
This can only be true for all time if y2 t = K y1 t . () ()
Homogeneous

Additivity:
() () () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then 4 y1

t + y1
t + 3y1 t = g t .
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then 4 y

( t ) + y
( t ) + 3y ( t ) = h ( t ) .
2 2 2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) . Then 4 y

( t ) + y
( t ) + 3y ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t )

3 3 3 3
Adding the first two equations,

() () () () ()
4  y1

t + y

2 t  +  y1
t + y
2 t  + 3  y1 t + y2 t  = g t + h t () () ()
Therefore

Solutions 4-27

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() () () () () ()
4 y

3 t + y
3 t + 3y3 t = 4  y1

t + y

2 t  +  y1
t + y
2 t  + 3  y1 t + y2 t  () () ()




() () () () ()
4 y

3 t + y
3 t + 3y3 t = 4  y1 t + y2 t  +  y1 t + y2 t  + 3  y1 t + y2 t  () () () ()
This can only be true for all time if y3 t = y1 t + y2 t . () () ()
Additive

Since it is homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:
() () () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then 4 y1

t + y1
t + 3y1 t = g t .
Let x ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .
2 0

Then 4 y ( t ) + y ( t ) + 3y ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .
2 2 2 0

The first equation can be written as

( ) ( )
4 y1 t
t0 + y1 t
t0 + 3y1 t
t0 = g t
t0 ( ) ( )
Therefore
( ) ( ) (
4 y1 t
t0 + y1 t
t0 + 3y1 t
t0 = 4 y2 t + y2 t + 3y2 t) () () ()
This can only be true for all time if y2 t = y1 t
t0 . () ( )
Time Invariant

Stability:

The eigenvalues are

1 =-0.1250 + j0.4841

2 =-0.1250 - j0.4841

Therefore the homogeneous solution is of the form,

()
y t = K1e( )
-0.1250 + j0.4841 t
+ K 2 e( )
-0.1250 - j0.4841 t
.

If there is no excitation, but the zero-excitation response is not zero, the response will
decay to zero as time increases. Since the particular solution has the same form as
the excitation plus all its unique derivatives, the response to any bounded input will
be a bounded output.
Stable
Solutions 4-28

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Causality:

The system equation can be rewritten as

1 2 
t  t t 2

() ( ) ( )
y t =    x 1 d 1d 2
 y 1 d 1
3   y 1 d 1d 2
4 



( )





So the response at any time, t = t0 , depends on the excitation at times, t < t0 and not
on any future values.
Causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends on the excitation at times, t < t0 .
System has memory.

Invertibility:

The system equation,

() ()
4 y

t + y
t + 3y t = x t () ()
expresses the excitation in terms of the response and its derivatives. Therefore the
excitation is uniquely determined by the response.
Invertible.

18. A system has a response that is the cube of its excitation. Classify the system as to
homogeneity, additivity, linearity, time-invariance, stability, causality, memory, and
invertibility.
()
y t = x3 t ()
Homogeneity:
() () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g 3 t .

Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then y ( t ) =  K g ( t )  () () ()
3
2 2
= K 3 g 3 t
K y1 t = K g 3 t .
Not homogeneous

Additivity:
() () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g 3 t .
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then y ( t ) = h ( t ) .
2 2
3

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) .
3
Then
() () () () () () () () () () ()
3
y3 t =  g t + h t  = g 3 t + h 3 t + 3g 2 t h t + 3g t h 2 t
y1 t + y2 t
Not additive

Solutions 4-29

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Since it is not homogeneous and not additive, it is also linear.

It is also not incrementally linear.

It is statically non-linear because it is non-linear without memory (lack of memory

proven below).

Time Invariance:
() () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = g 3 t .
Let x ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .
2 0

Then y ( t ) = g ( t
t ) = y ( t
t ) .
2
3
0 1 0
Time Invariant

Stability:
() () ()
If x t is bounded then y t = x 3 t is also bounded.
Stable

Causality:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at time, t = t0 and
not on any future values.
Causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends only on the excitation at time, t = t0 and
not on any past values.
System has no memory.

Invertibility:
1

() () () () ()
Solve y t = x 3 t for x t . x t = y 3 t . The cube root operation is multiple
valued. Therefore the system is not invertible, unless we assume that the excitation
must be real-valued. In that case, the response does determine the excitation because
for any real y there is only one real cube root.

19. A CT system is described by the differential equation,

() ()
t y t
8 y t = x t . ()
Classify the system as to linearity, time-invariance and stability.

Homogeneity:
() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then t y1 t
8 y1 t = g t .
Let x ( t ) = K g ( t ) . Then t y ( t )
8 y ( t ) = K g ( t ) .
2 2 2
If we multiply the first equation by K, we get

Solutions 4-30

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

()
tK y1 t
8K y1 t = K g t () ()
Therefore

() ()
tK y1 t
8K y1 t = t y2 t
8 y2 t () ()
This can only be true for all time if y2 t = K y1 t . () ()
Homogeneous

Additivity:
() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then t y1 t
8 y1 t = g t .
Let x ( t ) = h ( t ) . Then t y ( t )
8 y ( t ) = h ( t ) .
2 2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t ) . Then t y ( t )
8 y ( t ) = g ( t ) + h ( t )
3 3 3
Adding the first two equations,

() () ()
t  y1 t + y2 t 
8  y1 t + y2 t  = g t + h t () () ()
Therefore
() () () ()
t  y1 t + y2 t 
8  y1 t + y2 t  = t y3 t
8 y3 t () ()

() () () ()
t  y1 t + y2 t 
8  y1 t + y2 t  = t y3 t
8 y3 t () ()
This can only be true for all time if y3 t = y1 t + y2 t . () () ()
Additive

Since it is homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:
() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then t y1 t
8 y1 t = g t .
Let x ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .
2 0

Then t y ( t )
8 y ( t ) = g ( t
t ) .
2 2 0

The first equation can be written as

(t
t ) y (t
t )
8 y (t
t ) = g (t
t )
0 1 0 1 0 0

Therefore
(t
t ) y (t
t )
8 y (t
t ) = t y (t )
8 y (t )
0 1 0 1 0 2 2

Solutions 4-31

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

() ( ) ()
This equation is not satisfied if y2 t = y1 t
t0 therefore y2 t  y1 t
t0 .( )
Time Variant

Stability:

The homogeneous solution to the differential equation is of the form,

()
t y
t = 8 y t ()
To satisfy this equation the derivative of “y” times “t” must be of the
same functional form as “y” itself. This is satisfied by a
homogeneous solution of the form,

()
y t = Kt 8

If there is no excitation, but the zero-excitation response is not zero, the response will
increase without bound as time increases.
Unstable

Causality:

The system equation can be rewritten as

t
( ) d + 8 y( ) d
x  t

() 
y t =
  




So the response at any time, t = t0 , depends on the excitation at times, t < t0 and not
on any future values.
Causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends on the excitation at times, t < t0 .
System has memory.

Invertibility:

The system equation,

() ()
t y t
8 y t = x t ()
expresses the excitation in terms of the response and its derivatives. Therefore the
excitation is uniquely determined by the response.
Invertible.

20. A CT system is described by the equation,

Solutions 4-32

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

( )  x ( ) d
3
y t = .



Classify the system as to time-invariance, stability and invertibility.

Homogeneity:
t

() () ( )  g ( ) d .
3
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t =


t t

() () ( )  K g (  ) d  = K  g (  ) d  = K y (t ) .
3 3
Let x 2 t = K g t . Then y2 t = 1



Homogeneous

Additivity:
t

() () ( )  g ( ) d .
3
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t =


t

() () ( )  h ( ) d .
3
Let x 2 t = h t . Then y2 t =



() () ()
Let x 3 t = g t + h t .
t t t

( )  g (  ) + h (  ) d  =  g (  ) d  +  h (  ) d  = y (t ) + y (t )
3 3 3
Then y3 t = 1 2




Additive

Since it is both homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear, since any linear system is incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:
t

() () ( )  g ( ) d .
3
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t =



() (
Let x 2 t = g t
t0 . )
t t t
t0

t
3 0

( )  g ( 
t ) d  =  g (u ) du  y (t
t ) =  g (  ) d  .
3 3
Then y2 t = 0 1 0




Time Variant

Solutions 4-33

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Stability:
t t

() ( )  Kd  = K  d  ()
3 3
If x t is a constant, K, then y t = and, as t 
, y t increases



without bound.
Unstable

Causality:
The response at time, t =
3 , depends partially on the excitation at time t =
1 which
is in the future.
Not causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends partially on excitations in the past, t < t0 .
System has memory.

Invertibility:
t

( )  x ( ) d () ( )
3
Differentiate both sides of y t = w.r.t. t yielding y
t = x t / 3 . Then



() ( )
it follows that x t = y
3t .
Invertible.

()  ( )
t +3
21. A CT system is described by the equation y t = x  d .



Classify the system as to linearity, causality and invertibility.

Homogeneity:
t +3

() ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = ( )  g ( ) d .


t +3 t +3

() ()
Let x 2 t = K g t . Then y2 t = ()  ( )
K g  d = K  g (  ) d  = K y (t ) .
1



Homogeneous

Additivity:
t +3

() ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = ( )  g ( ) d .


t +3

() ()
Let x 2 t = h t . Then y2 t =( )  h ( ) d .



() () ()
Let x 3 t = g t + h t .

Solutions 4-34

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

t +3 t +3 t +3

Then y3 t =()  ( ) ( ) g  + h   d =
   ( ) g  d +  h (  ) d  = y (t ) + y (t )
1 2




Additive

Since it is both homogeneous and additive, it is also linear.

It is also incrementally linear, since any linear system is incrementally linear.

It is not statically non-linear because it is linear.

Time Invariance:
t +3

() ()
Let x1 t = g t . Then y1 t = ( )  g ( ) d .



() (
Let x 2 t = g t
t0 . )
t +3 t
t0 +3

Then y2 t =( )  g ( 
t ) d  =  g (u ) du = y (t
t ) .
0 1 0



Time Invariant

Stability:
t +3 t +3

()
If x t is a constant, K , then y t = ( )  Kd  = K  d  and, as t 
, y t ()



increases without bound.
Unstable

Causality:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends partially on the excitation at times
t0 < t < t0 + 3 which are in the future.
Not causal

Memory:
The response at any time, t = t0 , depends partially on excitations in the past, t < t0 .
System has memory.

Invertibility:
t +3

Differentiate both sides of y t = ( )  x ( ) d () (

w.r.t. t yielding y
t = x t + 3 . Then )



it follows that x ( t ) = y ( t
3) .
Invertible.

22. Show that the system described by y t = Re x t () ( ( ))

is additive but not
homogeneous. (Remember, if the excitation is multiplied by any complex constant
and the system is homogeneous, the response must be multiplied by that same
complex constant.)
Solutions 4-35

M. J. Roberts - 10/7/06

Homogeneity:

() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g t + j h t , where g t and h t are both real-valued functions.
Then y ( t ) = Re ( g ( t ) + j h ( t )) = g ( t ) .
1

Let x ( t ) = ( K + jK )
 g ( t ) + j h ( t )  , where K
2 r i r
and K i are both real constants.
Then
() (( ) ()
y2 t = Re K r + jK i
 g t + j h t  ())
() ( () () ()
y2 t = Re K r g t
K i h t + jK i g t + jK r h t = K r g t
K i h t ( )) () ()
If we multiply the first equation by K r + jK i , we get

(K r ) () (
+ jK i y1 t = K r + jK i Re g t + j h t ) ( () ( ))
(K r ) () (
+ jK i y1 t = K r + jK i g t ) ()
Therefore
() (
y2 t
K r + jK i y1 t ) ()
unless K i = 0 .

Not homogeneous

Additivity:

() () () () ()
Let x1 t = g1 t + j h1 t , where g1 t and h1 t are both real-valued functions.
Then y ( t ) = Re ( g ( t ) + j h ( t )) = g ( t ) .
1 1 1 1

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + j h ( t ) , where g ( t ) and h ( t ) are both real-valued functions.

2 2 2 2 2

Then y ( t ) = Re ( g ( t ) + j h ( t )) = g ( t ) .
2 2 2 2

Let x ( t ) = g ( t ) + j h ( t ) + g ( t ) + j h ( t ) .
3 1 1 2 2

Then y ( t ) = Re ( g ( t ) + j h ( t ) + g ( t ) + j h ( t )) = g ( t ) + g ( t ) = y ( t ) + y ( t ) .
3 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2

Additive

Solutions 4-36