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Magnetic Field – is the effect produced by electric currents and magnetic material
- is generated when electric charge carriers such as electrons move
through space or within an electrical conductor.

Right hand rule # 1 - Right hand rule # 2 -

determines the directions of
magnetic force,
conventional current and the
magnetic field. Given any
two of theses, the third can
be found.
determines the direction of
the magnetic field around a
current-carrying wire and
vice-versa
u Magnetic Circuit - is an arrangement of ferromagnetic materials called core that forms a
path to contain and guide the magnetic flux in a specific direction
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u Note: the flux always takes the shortest gap across an airgap

u Magnetomotive Force (MMF) – drives the magnetic flux through the magnetic circuit
u- ampere – turn of the respective coils (A•t )
uℱ = NI
u where: N is the number of turns in the coil and I is the electric current through the circuit.
Sometimes the unit of gilbert is used to express ℱ.
uMagnetic Field Intensity (H) – magnetomotive force per unit length of magnetic circuit
ℱ NI
uH = = : where: ℱ is the MMF excited in ampere turn and 𝓵 is the length of the magnetic path or section in
𝓵 𝓵
meter
u Note: homogenous magnetic circuit of uniform cross section, the field intensity is the same at all points in the circuit unlike in composite
magnetic circuits consisting of sections of different materials and/or different cross sectional areas, the magnetic field intensity
differs from sections to sections .
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u Flux Density (B) – number of flux lines going through the particular section of magnetic circuit
Φ
u B= where: B = Flux Density(Wb/m2) or Tesla (T) ; Φ = flux in webers (Wb) ; A = cross sectional area (m2)
𝑨

u Reluctance(ℜ) – is the opposition offered in the magnetic circuit in the magnetic flux
𝓵
u ℜ= where: ℜ = Reluctance (A•t/Wb); 𝓵= magnetic path length (m) ; A = cross sectional area (m2)
,𝑨

Magnetic Permeability(𝜇 ) – degree of magnetization that a material obtain in response to an applied

magnetic field
𝝁 = B/H
Note : magnetic permeability has different values for different degrees of magnetization of a specific magnetic core material

Relative Permeability (𝝁 r)–is the ratio of the permeability of the material to the permeability of free space(𝜇o)
u Analogous quantities in electrical and magnetic circuit analysis

Magnetic Circuit Electrical Circuit 4

Magnetomotive Force (A•t) Electromotive Force (V)
Flux(Wb) Current(A)
Reluctance (H-1) Resistance (Ω)
u Example 1. find the field intensity in the magnetic circuit of the figure. Data required is given in
the figure.
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u Example 2. The simple magnetic circuit of the figure has a cross sectional area of 50 cm2 and
the mean length of 2m. The relative permeability of the core is 100. the coil has 120 turns and
the flux produced is 100𝜇Wb. Calculate current the flowing through the coil and reluctance of
the magnetic circuit.
u Example 3. The air gap in a magnetic circuit is 1.5 mm long and 2500 mm2 in cross sectional
area. Calculate: (a)the reluctance of the air gap. (b) the mmf required6
to set up a
flux of 800 x 10 -6 Wb in the air gap.

u Example 4. A rectangular shaped core is made of mild steel plates 15mm х 20mm cross-
section . The mean length of the magnetic path is 18 cm. The exciting coil has 300
turns and current 0.7 A . Relative permeability of mild steel is 940 . Calculate (a)
Magnetizing force (b) Flux density (c) Reluctance (d) Flux of magnetic circuit.

u Example 5. A mild Steel ring has a cross sectional area of 500mm2 and a mean length
circumference of 400 mm has a coil of 200 turns wound uniformly around
it.Calculate (a)reluctance of the ring (b) current required to produce a flux of 800𝜇
Wb in the ring.Take relative permeability of mild steel as 400 at the given flux
density.
u Example 6. A ring of 30 cm mean diameter is made up of round iron rod 2.5 cm in diameter. At
one end, a saw cut 1mm in wide is made through it. It is uniformly wound with 500
7 a total
turns of wire. Calculate the current required by the exciting coil to produce
flux of 4mWb. Assume a relative permeability of iron at this flux density as 800.
Neglect leakage and fringing.

Example 7. A cast steel structure is made up of rod of square cross section 2.5 cm x 2.5 cm as
shown in the figure. What is the current that should be passed in a 500 turn coil on the
left limb, so that a flux of 2.5mWb is made to pass in the right limb. Assume the
permeability as 750 and neglect leakage.
u Example 8. The magnetic circuit of the figure has cast steel core with dimensions as shown.
Mean length from A to B through outer limb = 0.5m
Mean length from A to B through central limb = 0.2m 8
In the magnetic circuit, it is required to establish a flux of 0.75mWb in the air-gap of
the central limb. Determine the mmf of the exciting coil if for the core material
relative permeability, 𝜇r = 5000. Neglect Flux fringing

Hint: As seen from the figure, the flux in the central core divides into two equal parts at point A because two parallel paths
have equal reluctances. Total AT required for this magnetic circuit will be equal to:
a. AT required for the central core
b. AT required for one parallel path
c. AT required for three air-gaps
MAGNETIC HYSTERESIS AND HYSTERESIS LOSS

HYSTERESIS – is a phenomena that occurs when there is magnetization and demagnetization of a

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material
- the phenomenon of magnetization lagging behind the field producing it is called magnetic hysteresis. It is derived from Greek
word hysteresis (to lag).
- when the current is reduced to zero, H is reduced to zero, but the flux density in the core las behind due to the residual
magnetism. This lagging of flux behind the magnetizing force is the hysteresis effect.

1st : As the current moves from 0 degree to 90 degree, flux density increases to 0 to A and reaches to saturation at point A and the material
magnetized in one direction.

2nd : in positive cycle when current travels back from 90 degrees to 0 degree then all the magnet are not removed. There is some residual
magnet in the material

3rd : In negative cycle when the current travels from 180 degrees to 270 degrees some of the energy is used to remove the residual magnet
and reaches to saturation at D. this energy is loss in the circuit.

4th : again in the fourth quarter from 270 to 360 or 0 degrees all magnet is nor removed and there is some residual magnet E.

5th : in the next cycle from 0 to 90 degrees again some energy is wasted to remove all the magnet and again saturated to A. The loop is
called as the hysteresis loop and the energy loss in the loop is hysteresis loss.
HYSTERESIS LOOP

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Hysteresis results in a dissipation of energy which appears as a heating of the magnetic material. The
energy loss associated with hysteresis is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop.
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hysteresis, lagging of the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material, such as iron, behind variations of
the magnetizing field. When ferromagnetic materials are placed within a coil of wire carrying an
electric current, the magnetizing field, or magnetic field strength H, caused by the current forces some
or all of the atomic magnets in the material to align with the field. The net effect of this alignment is to
increase the total magnetic field, or magnetic flux density B. The aligning process does not occur
simultaneously or in step with the magnetizing field but lags behind it.

If the intensity of the magnetizing field is gradually increased, the magnetic flux density B rises to a
maximum, or saturation, value at which all of the atomic magnets are aligned in the same direction.
When the magnetizing field is diminished, the magnetic flux density decreases, again lagging behind
the change in field strength H. In fact, when H has decreased to zero, B still has a positive value called
the remanence, residual induction, or retentivity, which has a high value for permanent magnets. B
itself does not become zero until H has reached a negative value. The value of H for which B is zero is
called the coercive force. A further increase in H (in the negative direction) causes the flux density to
reverse and finally to reach saturation again, when all the atomic magnets are completely aligned in
the opposite direction. The cycle may be continued so that the graph of the flux density lagging
behind the field strength appears as a complete loop, known as a hysteresis loop. The energy lost as
heat, which is known as the hysteresis loss, in reversing the magnetization of the material is proportional
to the area of the hysteresis loop. Therefore, cores of transformers are made of materials with narrow
hysteresis loops so that little energy will be wasted in the form of heat.
Remedies to reduce hysteresis loss

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Air core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material but has more leakage
flux. Air core provides very low inductance in most situations. Hence it is not a plausible solution.

Another remedy is to use soft magnetic materials with low hysteresis, such as silicon steel, steel
alloys, Mn-Zn ferrite,. Soft magnetic materials are optimal to be used in transformer core because
of following advantages

• High saturation magnetization, hence the core saturation happens at higher magnetic fields
• They are characterized by Low coercivity and remanent magnetic flux density, which means
low hysteresis losses.
• High resistivity
• High magnetic permeability’s e.t.c.
DC Motor or Direct Current Motor 13
What is DC Motor ?

Electrical motors are everywhere around us. Almost all the

electro-mechanical movements we see around us are caused
either by a AC or a DC motor. Here we will be exploring DC
motors. This is a device that converts DC electrical energy to a
mechanical energy.
A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct current(electrical
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energy) into mechanical energy. It’s of vital importance for the industry
today, and is equally important for engineers to look into the working
principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed. In order to
understand the operating principle of DC motor we need to first look into its
constructional feature.
Principle of DC Motor 15

This DC or direct current motor works on the principal, when a

current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a torque and has a tendency to move.

This is known as motoring action. If the direction of current in the

wire is reversed, the direction of rotation also reverses. When
magnetic field and electric field interact they produce a
mechanical force, and based on that the working principle of
DC motor is established.
The direction of rotation of a this motor is given by Fleming’s
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left hand rule, which states that if the index finger, middle
finger and thumb of your left hand are extended mutually
perpendicular to each other and if the index finger
represents the direction of magnetic field, middle finger
indicates the direction of current, then the thumb represents
the direction in which force is experienced by the shaft of the
DC motor.
Structurally and construction wise a Direct Current motor is17
exactly similar to a DC generator, but electrically it is just the
opposite. Here we unlike a generator we supply electrical
energy to the input port and derive mechanical energy from
the output port. We can represent it by the block diagram
shown below.

Here in a DC motor, the supply voltage and current is given to

the electrical port or the input port and we derive the
mechanical output i.e. torque T and speed ω from the
mechanical port or output port.
A DC motor like we all know is a device that deals in the conversion of
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electrical energy to mechanical energy and this is essentially brought about
by two major parts required for the construction of DC motor, namely.

1. Stator – The static part that houses the field windings and receives the supply and,

2. Rotor – The rotating part that brings about the mechanical rotations.

Other than that there are several subsidiary parts namely the

1. Yoke of DC motor.

2. Poles of DC motor.

3. Field winding of DC motor.

4. Armature winding of DC motor.

5. Commutator of DC motor.

6. Brushes of DC motor.
Yoke of DC Motor 19
The magnetic frame or the yoke of DC motor made up of cast iron or steel
and forms an integral part of the stator or the static part of the motor. Its main
function is to form a protective covering over the inner sophisticated parts of
the motor and provide support to the armature. It also supports the field
system by housing the magnetic poles and field winding of the dc motor.
Poles of DC Motor 20
The magnetic poles of DC motor are structures fitted onto the inner wall of the
yoke with screws. The construction of magnetic poles basically comprises of two
parts namely, the pole core and the pole shoe stacked together under hydraulic
pressure and then attached to the yoke. These two structures are assigned for
different purposes, the pole core is of small cross sectional area and its function is to
just hold the pole shoe over the yoke, whereas the pole shoe having a relatively
larger cross-sectional area spreads the flux produced over the air gap between the
stator and rotor to reduce the loss due to reluctance. The pole shoe also carries slots
for the field windings that produce the field flux.
Field Winding of DC Motor 21
The field winding of DC motor are made with field coils (copper wire)
wound over the slots of the pole shoes in such a manner that when field
current flows through it, then adjacent poles have opposite polarity are
produced. The field winding basically form an electromagnet, that produces
field flux within which the rotor armature of the DC motor rotates, and results
in the effective flux cutting.
Armature Winding of DC Motor 22
The armature winding of DC motor is attached to the rotor, or the rotating part of the
machine, and as a result is subjected to altering magnetic field in the path of its rotation
which directly results in magnetic losses. For this reason the rotor is made of armature
core, that’s made with several low-hysteresis silicon steel lamination, to reduce the
magnetic losses like hysteresis and eddy current loss respectively. These laminated steel
sheets are stacked together to form the cylindrical structure of the armature core.
The armature core are provided with slots made of the same material as the core to
which the armature winding made with several turns of copper wire distributed uniformly
over the entire periphery of the core. The slot openings a shut with fibrous wedges to
prevent the conductor from plying out due to the high centrifugal force produced during
the rotation of the armature, in presence of supply current and field.
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The construction of armature winding of DC motor can be of two types:

Lap Winding
- In this case the number of parallel paths between conductors A is equal to the number
of poles P.
A=P

Wave Winding
- Here in this case, the number of parallel paths between conductors A is always equal to
2 irrespective of the number of poles. Hence the machine designs are made accordingly.
Commutator of DC Motor 24
The commutator of DC motor is a cylindrical structure made up of copper
segments stacked together, but insulated from each other by mica. Its main
function as far as the DC motor is concerned is to commute or relay the
supply current from the mains to the armature winding housed over a
rotating structure through the brushes of DC motor.
Brushes of DC Motor 25
- The brushes of DC motor are made with carbon or graphite structures,
making sliding contact over the rotating commutator. The brushes are used
to relay the current from external circuit to the rotating commutator form
where it flows into the armature winding. So, the commutator and brush unit
of the DC motor is concerned with transmitting the power from the static
electrical circuit to the mechanically rotating region or the rotor.
The DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR or the DC MOTOR has a lot of application in today’s field of
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engineering and technology. Starting from an electric shaver to parts of automobiles,
all small or medium sized motoring applications DC motors come handy. And because of
its wide range of application different functional types of DC motor are available in the
market for specific requirements.
Separately Excited DC Motor 27
- As the name suggests, in case of a separately excited DC motor the supply is given separately to
the field and armature windings. The main distinguishing fact in these types of DC motor is that, the
armature current does not flow through the field windings, as the field winding is energized from a
separate external source of DC current as shown in the figure.

- From the torque equation of the DC motor we know Tg = Ka φ Ia So the torque in this case can be varied by
varying field flux φ, independent of the armature current Ia .
Permanent Magnet DC Motor 28
- The permanent magnet DC motor consists of an armature winding as in case of an usual motor,
but does not necessarily contain the field windings. The construction of these types of DC motor are
such that, radially magnetized permanent magnets are mounted on the inner periphery of the
stator core to produce the field flux. The rotor on the other hand has a conventional DC armature
with commutator segments and brushes. The diagrammatic representation of a permanent
magnet DC motor is given below.

- The torque equation of DC motor suggests Tg = Ka φ Ia. Here φ is always constant, as permanent
magnets of required flux density are chosen at the time of construction and can’t be changed
there after. For a permanent magnet DC motor Tg = Ka1Ia Where, Ka1 = Ka.φ which is another
constant. In this case the torque of DC Motor can only be changed by controlling armature supply.
Self excited DC Motor 29
- In case of self excited DC motor, the field winding is connected either in series or in
parallel or partly in series, partly in parallel to the armature winding, and on this basis its
further classified as:-

1. Shunt wound DC motor

2. Series wound DC motor

3. Compound wound DC motor

Shunt wound DC motor 30
- shunt wound DC motor or more specifically shunt wound self excited DC motor, the
field windings are exposed to the entire terminal voltage as they are connected in
parallel to the armature winding as shown in the figure.

The shunt wound DC motor is a constant speed motor, as the speed does not vary here
with the variation of mechanical load on the output.
Series wound DC motor 31
- series wound self excited DC motor or simply series wound DC motor, the entire
armature current flows through the field winding as its connected in series to the
armature winding. The series wound self excited DC motor is diagrammatically
represented for clear understanding.

In a series wound DC motor, the speed varies with load. And operation wise this is its main
difference from a shunt wound DC motor.
Compound Wound DC Motor
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- The compound excitation characteristic in a DC motor can be obtained by combining
the operational characteristic of both the shunt and series excited DC motor. The
compound wound self excited DC motor or simply compound wound DC motor essentially
contains the field winding connected both in series and in parallel to the armature winding
as shown in the figure.

The excitation of compound wound DC motor can be of two types depending on the
nature of compounding .
Cumulative Compound DC Motor 33
- When the shunt field flux assists the main field flux, produced by the main field
connected in series to the armature winding then its called cumulative compound DC
motor.

Differential Compound DC Motor

- In case of a differentially compounded self excited DC motor i.e. differential
compound DC motor, the arrangement of shunt and series winding is such that the field
flux produced by the shunt field winding diminishes the effect of flux by the main series
field winding.

- The net flux produced in this case is lesser than the original flux and hence does not
find much of a practical application. The compounding characteristic of the self excited
DC motor is shown in the figure
Both the cumulative compound and differential compound DC motor can either be
of short shunt or long shunt type depending on the nature of arrangement. 34
Short Shunt DC Motor
- If the shunt field winding is only parallel to the armature winding and not the series
field winding then its known as short shunt DC motor or more specifically short shunt
type compound wound DC motor.

Long Shunt DC Motor

-If the shunt field winding is parallel to both the armature winding and the series field
winding then it’s known as long shunt type compounded wound DC motor or simply
long shunt DC motor. Short shunt and long shunt type motors have been shown in the
diagram