EC 5701

Millimeter and optical wave Communication

Dr. S. Ramprabhu
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics Engineering
Madras Institute of Technology
Anna University
Chennai 600 044
Light Emitting Diodes
 Metadata

Author Dr Ramprabhu S
Reviewer
Version Number
Release Date 08 September 2023

3 v 1.1
 Cognitive Levels Addressed

Cognitive Cognitive Skill Evaulation

Level
1 Remember Yes
2 Understand Yes
3 Apply Yes
4 Analyze Yes
5 Evaluate No
6 Create No

4 v 1.1
 Session Objectives
To learn the principle behind optical sources
 Session Outcomes
 At the end of the session, students will be able to
 Review semiconductor physics
 Review bandgap structures
 Outline
 Semiconductor physics
 Direct and indirect bandgap
 Outline
 Semiconductor physics
 Direct and indirect bandgap
 Review of Semiconductor Physics

k B  1.38 10 23 JK -1

a) Energy level diagrams showing the excitation of an electron from the valence band to the conduction
band.
The resultant free electron can freely move under the application of electric field.
b) Equal electron & hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor created by the thermal excitation of
electrons across the band gap

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 n-Type Semiconductor

a) Donor level in an n-type semiconductor.

b) The ionization of donor impurities creates an increased electron concentration distribution.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 p-Type Semiconductor

a) Acceptor level in an p-type semiconductor.

b) The ionization of acceptor impurities creates an increased hole concentration distribution

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Intrinsic & Extrinsic Materials
• Intrinsic material: A perfect material with no impurities.
Eg
n  p  ni  exp( ) [4-1]
2 k BT
n & p & ni are the electron, hole & intrinsic concentrations respectively.

E g is the gap energy, T is Temperature.

• Extrinsic material: donor or acceptor type semiconductors.

pn  ni
2 [4-2]

• Majority carriers: electrons in n-type or holes in p-type.

• Minority carriers: holes in n-type or electrons in p-type.
• The operation of semiconductor devices is essentially based on
the injection and extraction of minority carriers.
 The pn Junction

Electron diffusion across a pn junction

creates a barrier potential (electric field)
in the depletion region.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Reverse-biased pn Junction

A reverse bias widens the depletion region, but allows minority carriers to move freely with the applied field.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Forward-biased pn Junction

Lowering the barrier potential with a forward bias allows majority carriers to diffuse across the junction.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Outline
 Semiconductor physics
 Direct and indirect bandgap
Direct Band Gap Semiconductors
 Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors

E E E

CB
Indirect Bandgap, Eg
Ec CB
Direct Bandgap Eg Photon CB Ec Er Ec
Ev kcb Phonon
Ev Ev
VB
VB kvb VB
–k k –k k –k k
(a) GaAs (b) Si (c) Si with a recombination center

(a) In GaAs the minimum of the CB is directly above the maximum of the VB. GaAs is
therefore a direct bandgap semiconductor. (b) In Si, the minimum of the CB is displaced from
the maximum of the VB and Si is an indirect bandgap semiconductor. (c) Recombination of
an electron and a hole in Si involves a recombination center .
© 1999 S.O. Kasap,Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Outline
 LED history
 Principle of working
 Choice of materials
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
 1907 Publication report on Curious Phenomenon
On applying a potential to
a crystal of carborundum
(SiC), the material gave
out a yellowish light

H.J. Round, Electrical World, 49, 309, 1907

 What is LED?

LED are semiconductor p-n junctions that under forward bias conditions can emit
radiation by electroluminescence in the UV, visible or infrared regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The qaunta of light energy released is approximately
proportional to the band gap of the semiconductor.
Applications of LEDs
Getting to know LED
Advantages of Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Longevity:
The light emitting element in a diode is a small
conductor chip rather than a filament which greatly
extends the diode’s life in comparison to an
incandescent bulb (10 000 hours life time compared
to ~1000 hours for incandescence light bulb)
Efficiency:
Diodes emit almost no heat and run at very low
amperes.
Greater Light Intensity:
Since each diode emits its own light
Cost:
Not too bad
Robustness:
Solid state component, not as fragile as
incandescence light bulb
LED chip is the part
that we shall deal
with in this course
 Luminescence is the process behind
light emission
• Luminescence is a term used to describe the emission of
radiation from a solid when the solid is supplied with
some form of energy.
• Electroluminescence  excitation results from the
application of an electric field
• In a p-n junction diode injection electroluminescence
occurs resulting in light emission when the junction is
forward biased
 Outline
 LED history
 Principle of working
 Choice of materials
Excitation E
Electron (excited by the biased
forward voltage) is in the conduction
band

Normally the recombination takes place between

transition of electrons between the bottom of the
conduction band and the top of the valance band
(band exterma).
The emission of light is therefore;
hc/ = Ec-Ev = Eg(only direct band gap allows
Hole is in valance band
radiative transition)
 How does it
work?

P-n Electrical
junction Contacts

A typical LED needs a p-n junction

There are a lot of electrons and holes at

the junction due to excitations

Electrons from n need to be injected to p

to promote recombination

Junction is biased to produce even more Recombination

e-h and to inject electrons from n to p for produces light!!
recombination to happen
Injection Luminescence in LED

 Under forward bias – majority carriers from both sides of the junction
can cross the depletion region and entering the material at the other
side.
 Upon entering, the majority carriers become minority carriers
 For example, electrons in n-type (majority carriers) enter the p-type
to become minority carriers
 The minority carriers will be larger  minority carrier injection
 Minority carriers will diffuse and recombine with the majority carrier.
 For example, the electrons as minority carriers in the p-region will
recombine with the holes. Holes are the majority carrier in the p-
region.
 The recombination causes light to be emitted
 Such process is termed radiative recombination.
 Recombination and Efficiency
(a) (b)
p n+ p n+

Eg Eg
EC
h =Eg
eVo
EF
EV

Electrons in CB

Holes in VB
◘Ideal LED will have all injection electrons to take part in the recombination process
◘In real device not all electron will recombine with holes to radiate light
◘Sometimes recombination occurs but no light is being emitted (non-radiative)
◘Efficiency of the device therefore can be described
◘Efficiency is the rate of photon emission over the rate of supply electrons
 Outline
 LED history
 Principle of working
 Choice of materials
 Emission wavelength, g
◘ The number of radiative recombination is proportional to the carrier injection rate
◘ Carrier injection rate is related to the current flowing in the junction
◘ If the transition take place between states (conduction and valance bands) the
emission wavelength, g = hc/(EC-EV)
◘ EC-EV = Eg
◘ g = hc/Eg
 Construction of Typical LED
Al
Light output
SiO2

n
Electrical
contacts

Substrate
 LED Construction

 Efficient light emitter is also an efficient absorbers of

radiation therefore, a shallow p-n junction required.
 Active materials (n and p) will be grown on a lattice
matched substrate.
 The p-n junction will be forward biased with contacts
made by metallisation to the upper and lower surfaces.
 Ought to leave the upper part ‘clear’ so photon can
escape.
 The silica provides passivation/device isolation and
carrier confinement
 Efficient LED
 Need a p-n junction (preferably the same
semiconductor material only different dopants)
 Recombination must occur  Radiative
transmission to give out the ‘right coloured LED’
 ‘Right coloured LED’  hc/ = Ec-Ev = Eg
 so choose material with the right Eg
 Direct band gap semiconductors to allow efficient
recombination
 All photons created must be able to leave the
semiconductor
 Little or no reabsorption of photons
Correct band gap Direct band gap

Materials
Requirements

Efficient radiative Material can be

pathways must exist made p and n-type
  UV-ED  ~0.5-400nm
Direct band gap
Eg > 3.25eV
materials
 LED -  ~450-650nm
e.g. GaAs not Si Eg = 3.1eV to 1.6eV
 IR-ED-  ~750nm- 1nm
Eg = 1.65eV

Candidate Materials

Materials with refractive Readily doped n or p-types

index that could allow light
to ‘get out’
 Typical Exam Question
Describe the principles of operation of an
LED and state the material’s requirements
criteria to produce an efficient LED.
 Visible LED

Definition:
LED which could emit visible light, the band gap of the materials that we use
must be in the region of visible wavelength = 390- 770nm. This coincides with
the energy value of 3.18eV- 1.61eV which corresponds to colours as stated
below:
Violet ~ 3.17eV The band gap, Eg
Colour an
LED should
Blue ~ 2.73eV that the
semiconductor
emit Green ~ 2.52eV must posses to
Yellow ~ 2.15eV emit each light
Orange ~ 2.08eV
Red ~ 1.62eV
Electromagnetic Spectrum

The appearance of the

Visible lights V ~ 3.17eV
visible light will be the results
B ~ 2.73eV of the overlap integral
between the eye response
G ~ 2.52eV
curve and the spectral power
Y ~ 2.15eV of the device  the peak of
the luminous curve will not in
O ~ 2.08eV
general be the same as the
R ~ 1.62eV peak of the spectral power
curve
 Question 1
• Indicate the binary compounds that can be
selected for red, yellow, green and blue
LED.
 Candidate Materials
Group III-V & Group II-VI
Group II Group III Group IV Group V

iii iv v
N
ii P
Al
Ga As

In

Periodic Table to show group III-V and II-V binaries

 Group III-V (1950)

The era of III–V compound semiconductors

started in the early 1950s when this class of
materials was postulated and demonstrated by
Welker (1952, 1953). The class of III–V
compounds had been an unknown substance
prior to the 1950s that does not occur
naturally. The novel man-made III–V
compounds proved to be optically very active
and thus instrumental to modern LED
technology.
 Outline
 LED history
 Principle of working
 Choice of materials
 LED rate equation
 Types of LEDs
 Outline
 LED history
 Principle of working
 Choice of materials
 LED rate equation
 Types of LEDs
LED Power and Efficiency
A rate equation for carrier recombination in the LED can
be expressed in the form

where J is the current density, e is the charge on an

electron, and d is the thickness of the recombination
region

 The condition for equilibrium

LED Power and Efficiency
 The recombination rate is

where rr is the radiative recombination rate per unit

volume and rnr is the nonradiative recombination rate per
unit volume
 The total number of recombinations per second is

where i is the forward-biased current into the device

LED Power and Efficiency
 The LED internal quantum efficiency is given by

where Rr is the total number of radiative recombinations

per second
 The optical power generated internally by the LED is
OR
LED Power and Efficiency
 Internal quantum efficiency is

where r n rr is the radiative minority carrier lifetime

and nr n rnr is the nonradiative minority carrier lifetime
 The total recombination lifetime can be written as

 Hence, the internal quantum efficiency can be written

LED Power and Efficiency
 The external power efficiency is defined as the ratio of
the optical power emitted externally Pe to the electric
power provided to the device

where

F is the transmission factor of the semiconductor-

external interface
 Modulation of LED
• The frequency response of an LED depends on:
1- Doping level in the active region
2- Injected carrier lifetime in the recombination region,  .
i
3- Parasitic capacitance of the LED
• If the drive current of an LED is modulated at a frequency of 
the output optical power of the device will vary as:
P0
P( )  [4-15]

1  ( i ) 2
• Electrical current is directly proportional to the optical power,
thus we can define electrical bandwidth and optical bandwidth,
separately.
 p()   I() 
Electrical BW  10log    20 log  I (0) 
[4-16]

 p ( 0)   
p : electrical power, I : electrical current
  P( )   I ( ) 
Optical BW  10 log    10 log   [4-17]

 P ( 0)   I ( 0) 

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Outline
 LED history
 Principle of working
 Choice of materials
 LED rate equation
 Types of LEDs
 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

• For photonic communications requiring data rate 100-200 Mb/s

with multimode fiber with tens of microwatts, LEDs are usually
the best choice.
• LED configurations being used in photonic communications:
1- Surface Emitters (Front Emitters)
2- Edge Emitters
 Surface-Emitting LED

Schematic of high-radiance surface-emitting LED. The active region is limitted

to a circular cross section that has an area compatible with the fiber-core end face.

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Edge-Emitting LED

Schematic of an edge-emitting double heterojunction LED. The output beam is

lambertian in the plane of junction and highly directional perpendicular to pn junction.
They have high quantum efficiency & fast response.
Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000
 Light Source Material
• Most of the light sources contain III-V ternary & quaternary
compounds.
• Ga1 x Alx As by varying x it is possible to control the band-gap
energy and thereby the emission wavelength over the range of
800 nm to 900 nm. The spectral width is around 20 to 40 nm.
• In1 x Ga x As y P1 y By changing 0<x<0.47; y is approximately 2.2x,
the emission wavelength can be controlled over the range of
920 nm to 1600 nm.
• The spectral width varies from 70 nm to 180 nm when the
wavelength changes from 1300 nm to 1600 nm.
• These materials are lattice matched.
Spectral width of LED types

Optical Fiber communications, 3rd ed.,G.Keiser,McGrawHill, 2000

 Summary
During the session
 Choice of a material for LED operation was
discussed
 Working principle of LED was studied
 working principle and choice of materials for LED
was studied
 Types of LEDs were studied
Test Your Understanding
Bring out the difference between direct and indirect
bandgap structures
 Reference
1. Gerd Kaiser, "Optical FiberCommunications",Tata
McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 5th Edition, 2013.