2 Semiconductors

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Semiconductors play an important role in the modern engineering technology. In
IC and Medical equipment fabrication communication technology and Consumer
electronics, the semiconductors are widely used. The field of electronics has been
revolutioned since to discovery of the transistor in 1948. Semiconductors have their
electrical conduction in between insulator's and conductors.
Semiconducting materials have some specific properties such that the addition of
impurities and increasing of temperature increase their electrical conductivity, unlike
metals. Further semiconductor devices have very small size and less weight and require
a small power to operate.
Energy level diagram of a semiconductor

Energy Conduction band

Band gap

Electrons

Figure 2.1
2.2 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Electron-hole pair

When the temperature of the semiconductor is increased from K, due to the

thermal energy suppied, if one electron moves from valence band to conduction band, it
creates one hole in the valence band. This electron in the conduction band and the hole
created in the valence band is called electron-hole pair.

Hole current
Due to thermal energy when an electron moves from valence band to conduction
band, a hole is created in the valence band. This hole is filled by the valence electron
creating a hole in its original position. This movement of valence electrons from one
covalent bond to another covalent bond in the valence band leads to a current known as
hole current.

2.2 PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTOR

1. The resistivity of semiconductors lies between conducting and insulating
materials.

(i.e..) 10–4 to 0.5 ohm - metre

2. At 0 K they behave as insulators

3. When the temperature is raised or when impurities are added, their conductivity
increases.

i.e.,  1/T

(This is converse compared to usual conductors for which  T).

4. They have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.

Explanation

The reason for the above property is, when the tempeature is increased, large
number of charge carriers are produced due to breaking of covalent bonds and hence
these electrons move freely and gives rise to conductivity.
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.3

5. In conductors the electrons are charge carriers and will take part in conduction
but in semiconductor both electrons and holes are charge carriers and will
take part in conduction. (Hole is produced by the vacancy of electrons at
bond sites).

 Total conductivity, = e + h

Where,  e - conductivity due to electrons

 h - conductivity due to holes

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR BASED ON

TRANSITION ACROSS THE ENERGY GAP
The physical arrangement of atoms in the lattice of the crystal structure and the
chemical bonding between the atoms determine the electronic, optical and mechanical
properties of materials. Semiconductors are available in elemental form (Ge, Si) and
compound form (GaAs, InP). Further they can further subdivided into direct band gap
and indirect bandgap semiconductors.
Direct and Indirect bandgap semiconductor

E
CB
– – electron
h hole E
k – CB
k

VB VB
(a) (b)

Figure 2.2: (a) Band diagram of direct bandgap semiconductor;

(b) Band diagram of indirect bandgap semiconductor
Let us consider the differences between direct and indirect bandgap
semiconductors:
2.4 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Table 2.1

Direct bandgap semiconductor Indirect bandgap semiconductor

(Compound semiconductor) (Elemental semiconductor)
1. Figure 2.2 (a) shows the energy band Figure 2.2 (b) shows the energy band diagram
diagram drawn between energy ‘E’ drawn between ‘E’ and wavevector ‘k’
and wave vector ‘k’ of a direct band- of an indirect bandgap semiconductor.
gap semiconductor.
2. As shown in the band diagram, the As shown in the band diagram the
minimum energy of conduction band minimum energy of conduction band and
and maximum energy of valence band maximum energy of valence band are
are having the same value of wave having the different values of wave
vector. vector.
3. Here an electron from the conduction Here an electron from the conduction band
band can recombine with a hole in the can recombine with a hole in the valence
valence band directly emitting a light band indirectly through traps. Here there
photon of energy h  is no emission of light photon. But there
is emission of phonon leading to the rise
of temperature of the material.
4. Life time (i.e., recombination time) Life time of charge carriers is more.
of charge carriers is very less.
5. Due to emission of light photon during Due to longer life time of charge carriers,
recombination of charge carriers, these these are used to amplify the signals as in
are used to fabricate LEDs and laser the case of rectifier diodes and transistors.
diodes.
6. These are mostly from compound These are mostly from elemental
semiconductors. semiconductors.
7. Examples : In P, Ga As Examples : Si, Ge
8. Bandgap energy Bandgap energy
InP - 1.35 eV Si - 0.7eV
GaAs - 1.42 eV Ge - 1.12 eV
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.5

2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR BASED ON NUMBER

OF TYPE OF ATOMS
Elemental and Compound Semiconductors
Based on the composition of semiconductors they are classified as:

1. Elemental semiconductors

2. Compound semiconductors

1. Elemental semiconductors

The elemental semiconductor is made of single element from the fourth column
elements. Germanium and Silicon are the important examples for elemental
semiconductors, these are also known as indirect band gap semiconductors.

Here the recombination of an electron from the conduction band with a hole in
the valence band takes place via traps. In this process, the phonons are emitted while
recombination and they heat the lattice.

2. Compound Semiconductors

The compound semiconductors are made by combining the third and fifth column
elements (or) second and sixth column elements. GaAs, lnP are the important examples
for compound semi conductors, these are also known as direct band gap
semiconductors.

Here the recombination of electron and hole takes place directly and its energy
difference is emitted in the form of photons in the visible (or) Infrared range.

Since the life time of the charge carrier is so small, the current amplification is
small. Here these diodes are not suitable for making transistors and ICs, rather they
are used in making LEDs and LASER diodes.
2.6 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Table 2.2: Differenes between Elemental and Compound Semiconductor

Sl.No. Elemental Semiconductor Compound Semiconductor

1. They are made of single element They are made of compounds.

E.g.: Ge, Si, etc.
2. They are called as Indirect band
gap semiconductors. ie., electron
hole recombination takes place
through traps, which are present
in the band gap
3. Here heat is produced due to
recombination
4. Life time of charge carriers is
more due to indirect
recombination
5. Current amplification is more
6. They are used for the
manufacture of diodes and
transistors, etc.
E.g.: GaA, GaP, CdS, MgO, etc.
They are called as direct bandgap
semiconductors. i.e. electron-hole
recombination takes place directly
with each other
Here the photons are emitted during
recombination (this effect is in LED)
Life time of charge carrier is less due
to direct recombination
Current amplification is less
They are used for making LED’s
Laser diodes, IC’s etc.

At present germanium and silicon are the most widely used semiconducting
materials.
Types of Semiconductor Based on the Purity of Atom
Based on the purity, semiconductors are classified into the following two types:
i) Intrinsic Semiconductor
ii) Extrinsic Semiconductor
i) Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in a extremely pure form is called as intrinsic semiconductors.
Examples: Germanium and Silicon.
In these semiconductors the electrons and holes can be created only by thermal
agitation. As there are no impurities the number of free electrons must be equal to the
number of holes.
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.7

At 0 K the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty.
The carrier concentration (i.e.) electron density (or) hole density increases exponentially
with the increase in temperature.
ii) Extrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor material in which the change carriers orginate from impurity
atoms added to the material is called impurity semiconductor or extrinsic semiconductor.
The addition of impurity increases the carrier concentration and hence the conductivity
of the conductor.
Usually pentavalent elements from group V or trivalent elements from group III
are used as dopants the atoms belonging to there two groups are nearly of the same
size as silicon or germanium atoms and easily substitute themselves in place of some of
the host atoms (silicon/germanium atoms) in the semiconductor crystal. Thus they are
substitutional impurities and do not produce any lattice distortion in the original crystal
stucture.

2.5 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SEMICONDUCTORS

The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor changes appreciably with
temperature variations.
i) At Absolute Zero
At absolute zero, all the electrons are lightly bound to the nucleus (i.e.,). The
inner orbit electrons are bound, whereas the valence electrons are bonded, with covalent
bond, with other atoms. Hence there won’t be any free electrons and the semiconductor
crystal behaves as a perfect insulator.
Hence at absolute zero, no valence electron can reach the conduction band to
become free electron. Therefore, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction
band is empty (Figure 2.3).

Conduction band Empty

Completely filled
Valence band

Figure 2.3
2.8 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

ii) Above Absolute Zero

When the temperature is raised some of the co-valent bonds break due to thermal
energy supplied. Due to the breaking of bonds the electrons are released from the
covalent bonds and become free electrons. Now, if a potential difference is applied
across the semiconductor, these free electrons moves with respect to field direction
and produces a tiny electric current as shown in Figure 2.4.
This shows that the resitance of semiconductor decreases with the rise in
temperature (i.e.,) It has Negative temperature Co-efficient of Resistance.
From the energy band diagram as shown in Figure 2.5 each time when a valence
electron becomes free and enter into the conduction band, a hole is created in the
valence band (Figure 2.5). Therefore the number of electrons that move to conduction
band will be exactly equal to the number of holes created in the valence band.

Electrons
CB

Pure Ge

Holes
VB

CB - Conduction band
VB - Valence band

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

2.6 HOLE CURRENT

Similar to the normal current which is due to free electrons another current called
the hole current also flows in the semiconductor.
Due to thermal energy if one electron enters conduction band from valence band,
one hole is created in the valence band.  Due to thermal energy hole-electron pairs
are created [Hole  virtual Charge].
Let us consider a valence electron at ‘L’ has become free electron due to thermal
energy and a hole is created at ‘L’.
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.9

Since, it is the tendency of semiconductor to form covalent bonds, a hole will

attract an electron from the neighbouring atom, say an electron from ‘M’ fills ‘L’ position.
Hence a hole is created at ‘M’. Another valence electron (say at N) fills the hole at
‘M’ thus creating a hole at N similarly hole, moves from L to M, M to N, N to P, P to Q
etc (i.e.,) towards the negative terminal of supply voltage. This constitutes hole current.

Ge L
M –
P e

Ge Ge N Ge
Hole
O Electron
Ge

Figure 2.6
Definition
It is noted that hole current is due to the movemnet of valence electrons from one
covalent bond to another bond (not by the free electrons in conduction based).
Thus it is clear that the valence electrons, move along the path NML, whereas
holes move in the opposite direction (i.e) along the path L M N etc as in Figure 2.7.

Conduction band

M Ele
ctr
on

N Hole L
Valence band

Figure 2.7
2.10 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

2.7 CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Conduction Band
EC

Eg

EV
Valence Band

Figure 2.8: Calculation of carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor

The number of electrons available between energy interval E and E + dE is given
by
dn = p(E) g(E) dE ... (1(a))
where g(E) dE is the density of electrons in the energy interval E and E + dE and p(E)
is the probability that a state of energy E is occupied. The conduction band does not
have all states of the same energy. The energy Ec is the minimum energy of the conduction
band and extends to higher values of energy as we consider the top of the conduction
band.
The number of electrons in the conduction band should therefore be calculated
by integrating equation (2.1) from E c to the energy corresponding to the top of the
conduction band

top energy

i.e., n   p(E) g(E) dE ... (1(b))

EC

The electrons moving in the periodic potential of conduction band are not like
free electron, moving in air or under constant potential. But if the mass of the electron
is replaced mass me* an electron moving in a periodic potential could be treated as a
free electron. Therefore, the density of electrons (number of free electrons per unit
volume) in the conduction band is given by

 4 
2g(E) dE = 2  3  21/2 (me*)3/2 (E – Ec)1/2 dE ... (2)
h 

The factor ‘2’ is introduced here following Pauli’s principle.

SEMICONDUCTORS 2.11

The probability of an electron occuping a given energy state is given by the

Fermi - Dirasc probability function.

1
p(E) = (Fermi-Dirac distribution function) ...(3)
 E  Ef 
exp   1
 kT 

where Ef is called the fermi energy level and k is called the Boltzmann constant. Therefore

 4  * 3/ 2 1/ 2
 3   2 me   E – E c  dE
h 
2 p (E) g(E) dE =  E – Ef 
exp   1
 kT 

Integrating, we get

4 *
 
3/ 2  E  E c ½
dE
n = h 3 2m e 
EC  E  Ef  ... (4)
exp    1
 kT 
At room temperature, E  Ec
 E  Ef 
E – Ef  4kT and exp   >> 1
 kT 
Therefore
1   E  Ef  E E
 exp       exp  f 
 E  Ef    kT   kT 
exp   1
 kT 
Therefore

4  Ef  E 
n 3
 
2m*e
3/ 2 ½
 (E  E c ) exp   dE
h Ec  kT 
Let E – Ec + x

4 3/ 2 E 
3 
2m*e 
 E c / kT  x / kT
 n exp  f   x1/ 2 e e dx
h  kT  0
or

4 3/ 2  E  Ec 
3 
n 2m*e  exp  f   x1/ 2 e  x / kT dx
h  kT  0
2.12 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

It can be easily shown with the help of gamma function that


1/ 2 ½
x e  x / kT dx  (kT ) 3 / 2 ... (6)
0
2

Therefore concentration of electrons in the conduction band.

3/ 2
 2m*e kT   E  Ec 
n  2  2

 exp  f  ... (7)
 h   kT 
In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in the conduction band
must equal the number of vacancies or holes in the valance band. So the probability that
a state of energy E is unoccupied in the valance band is

 E Ef 
exp  1 
  E  Ef    kT 
1  p(E)  1  exp    1  ... (8)
  kT   1  exp  E Ef 
 
 kT 

Assuming the Fermi level lies at an energy distance >> 4kT from E v’ the top of
the valance band, we get

E  Ef 
exp   << 1
 kT 

 E  Ef 
and hence 1 – p(E) = exp  
 kT 

The number of holes or vacancies in the energy interval E and E + dE in the

valence band is
dp = g(E) (1 – p(E)) dE ... (9)
Taking the effective mass of holes as ‘ m *h ’

4  E  Ef 
3
2m*h
3/ 2
dp  
E ½ exp    dE ... (10)
h  kT 
The highest energy is corresponding to the top of the valence band. The lowest
energy for the sake of mathematical simplification may be taken as – .
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.13

Integrating we get
EV
4  E  Ef 
p  h 3
(2m*h ) 3 / 2 (E v  E)½ exp   dE ... (11)
  kT 
Equation (11) can be solved with the help of gamma function and then
3/ 2
 2 m*h kT   E  Ef 
p  2 
 exp  v  ... (12)
 h2   kT 
This equation gives the number of holes or vacancies in the valence band per unit
volume.
Since in intrinsic semiconductors, n = p
We assume n = p = n i is called the intrinsic carrier concentration.
3
 2 kT   E \ kT
Therefore n i2  np  4  2  (m*e m*h ) 3 / 2 e g
 h 
3/ 2
 2 kT   E g \ 2 kT
Therefore ni = 2  2  ( m*e m *h ) 3 / 4 e ... (13)
 h 

where Eg is the energy gap and it is equal to E c – Ev.

The electrical conductivity ‘’ = (ne µe + peµh) ... (14)
where µe and µh are the mobility of electron and hole respectively. Mobility is defined as
the extra velocity acquired by the electron or hole under potential gradient. In the case
of intrinsic semiconductor,
 = ni e(µe + µh)
3/ 2
 2 kT   E g \ 2 kT
 = (µe + µh) 2e  2 
(m *e m *h ) 3 / 4 e ... (15)
 h 
So the electrical conductivity depends upon the negative exponential of the
forbidden energy gap between the valence band and conduction band and on the mobility
of both holes and electrons. The mobility in a pure semiconductor is determined by the
interaction of the electron with lattice waves or phonons. In such case µ e and µh are
both proportional T–3/2.
2.14 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Therefore the electrical conductivity in the intrinsic semiconductor can be written

as
i= A e-Eg /2kT ... (16)
where A is a constant. From the graph we know that the conductivity increases with
temperature (Figure 2.9).

log 

1\T
Figure 2.9: Variation of log s with reciprocal of
temperature in intrinsic semiconductor

2.8 VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL AND CARRIER

CONCENTRATION WITH TEMPERATURE IN AN INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR
For an intrinsic semiconductor number of electrons (i.e) electron density will
be the same as that of number of holes (ie) hole density.
(ie) ne = nh
3/2
 2m*e kT   E  Ec 
ne = 2   exp  f  ... (1)
 h2   kT 
3/2
 2m*h kT   E  Ef 
nh = 2  2  exp  v  ... (2)
 h   kT 
Equating equation (1) and (2) we can write,

* 3/2  E  Ec  * 3/2  E  Ef 
m 
e exp  f
 kT


= m 
h exp  v
 kT



E  Ec 
3/2 exp  f 
 m *h   kT 
  =
 m *e   Ev  Ef 
exp  
 kT 
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.15

 E f  Ec  E v  E f 
= exp  
 kT 
3/2
 m *h   2Ef   Ev  Ec  
= exp  
 m *   kT 
 e
Taking log on both sides we have,

 m*   2Ef   Ev  Ec  
3 / 2 log  h*  =  
kT
 me   

 m*e 
2Ef = E c  E v  3 / 2 kT log  * 
 mh 

* *  m* 
If m h = m e then log  h*  = 0
 me 
Ec  Ev
Ef =
2
i.e., the Fermi energy level lies in the midway between E e and Ev.

2.9 CARRIER TRANSPORT, DIFFUSION

Diffusion
Diffusion in a semiconductor is caused by the diffusion of charge carries. This is
due to the transport of charges occuring because of non uniform concentration of charged
particles in a semiconductor.

Carrier Transport
In metals, the electrons are fully responsible for electrical conduction. But in
semiconductors, both electrons and holes are the charge carriers. The electrical
conductivity in semiconductor is produced due to the movement of the holes and electrons

Drift Velocity
The drift velocity ‘vd’ is the average velocity acquired by the free electron of a
metal in a particular direction during the application of the electric field.

Mobility
Mobility is defined as the extra velocity acquired by the electron or hole under
potential gradient.
2.16 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

2.10 HALL EFFECT

When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to a current carrying conductor or
semiconductor, a voltage is developed across the specimen in a direction perpendicular
to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is called the Hall effect
and the voltage so developed is called the Hall voltage.

Theory of Hall Effect

As shown in figure 2.10, consider a slab of a specimen subjected to an external
electric field Ex along x-axis and a magnetic field Bz along z-axis. As a result of electric
field Ex, a current density Jx will flow in the direction of that electric field. If we assume
that the current is carried only by electrons of charge –e, then their velocity vx will be
opposite to Jx.

Bz
Ex
+ + + + + +

vx
Ey
z
y
– – – – – –
x

Figure 2.10: Hall effect

So the magnetic induction ‘B’ applied perpendicular to current will exert a
transverse magnetic deflecting force (Lorentz force) on the electrons which causes the
electrons to drift downward to the edge of the specimen. Consequently lower surface
of the slab becomes negative and its upper surface becomes positive as shown in the
figure 3.9.
This excess of negative charge on the lower surface and the corresponding excess
of positive charge at the upper surface create a transverse electric field Ev, known as
Hall field which opposes the transverse drifting of electrons. Ultimately an equilibrium
is reached at which the electrical opposing force (–e E y) force due to accumulation of
electrons becomes equal to the magnetic deflecting force (–e v x Bz) and so the drifting
of electrons stops.
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.17

Thus the net force on the electrons becomes zero.

i.e., F y = 0 = –e Ey + e vx Bz
(or) E y = vx Bz
The drift speed v x of electrons is related to current density by
Jx = – n e vx
where n is the concentration of electrons or number of electrons per unit volume
Jx
 vx    R H Jx
ne
(or) E y = RH Jx Bz

1
where the factor R H  is called the Hall coefficient for the specimen. Hall coefficient
ne
is negative for free electrons. If the charge carriers are positive (holes), then the Hall
coefficient is positive. Thus it is the same as the sign of the charge carrier.
Results

1
1) R H  n e is correct for a metal where only the electrons at fermi surface

have substantially the same velocity. If a velocity distribution of the Maxwellian

type is used (as in the case of semiconductors), then

 3 1
RH 
8 n e

2) In an intrinsic semiconductor, the Hall coefficient would not vanish eventhough

there are equal number of electrons and holes. Since the electrons and holes
have different mobilities, the ‘general expression for R H can be written as

 A ( n b 2  p)
RH 
e ( n b  p) 2
where n is the concentration of electrons; p is the concentration of holes and
b = µe/µh, is the ratio of the mobilities of electrons and holes. For a metal or
degenerate semiconductor A = 1: For a non-degenerate semiconductor with
thermal (phonon) scattering, A = 3/8 (i.e., for intrinsic semiconductor); but
for ionised impurity scattering A = 1.93 (i.e., for p type and n type
semiconductors).
2.18 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

3) Most of the metals like monovalent metals have –ve Hall coefficient. But for
divalent alkaline earth metals like Zinc and Cadmium R H is +ve. The reason
can be explained as follows. According to Band theory of solids, a material
with nearly filled valence band can give rise to negative electron mass
conduction or hole conduction; Due to the possible hole conduction, the above
metals have +ve R H.
4) In n type semiconductor RH is –ve and so the electrons are the majority charge
carriers. In p type semiconductor R H is +ve and so the holes are the majority
charge carriers. Thus by measuring the Hall coefficient one can determine
the nature of charge carriers in that material and the number of charge carriers
per unit volume as well as mobility of charge carriers.

Experimental determination of carrier concentration and mobility

of charge carriers
A thin specimen having few mm wide and several cm long is placed in x-direction
as shown in figure 2.11. A magnetic field B z is applied in z-direction. A suitable current
is placed through the specimen in x direction.
Two potential leads are placed at A (top surface) and B (bottom surface) of the
specimen which are connected to a high sensitive digital microvoltmeter to measure the
Hall voltage VH. By measuring the Hall voltage. Hall coefficient can be calculated. Since
the Hall voltage is about few microvolt, the measurement of Hall voltage is very difficult due
to the development of thermo electric effects. This can be eliminated by changing the direction
of current and once again measuring the Hall voltage.

Magnetic field along Z zxis

S-Pole

A
D VH
C
B

N-Pole

k
+ –
mA Rh
Figure 2.11: Experimental arrangement to study the Hall effect
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.19

Similarly the error due to improper alignment of electrodes can be eliminated by

reversing the direction of magnetic field. Thus the measured Hall voltage is the average of
four readings (i.e., two readings when Bz is applied along +ve Z axis and another two
readings when Bz is applied along –ve Z axis).
Calculation

Vy
Since Ey 
d
where d is the thickness of the specimen,
V y = E y d = R H J x B zd

1 I
Since RH  and J x  x
ne bd

where b is the breadth of the specimen.

 1 I x Bz
Vy 
ne b
e Vy b
(or) n
I x Bz
Knowing the values of V y, b, Ix and Bz, the value of the concentration of charge
carriers can be determined.
Now the mobility of the charge carrier is given by
vx Ey 1
   .
Ex Bz E x
Vy  Vv 
(or)   . 
d Bz Vx Vx B z d
where  is the length of the specimen.
By measuring the applied potential difference ‘V x’ across x direction and Hall
voltage Vy and knowing the values of Bz,  and d, one can determine the mobility of the
charge carriers.

Jx
Further   = electrical conductivity of the specimen.
Ex
Since E y = RH Jx Bz and
2.20 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

R H J x Bz J
   RH x  RH 
Bz E x Ex

     n | e | .
RH
So by determining n and µ, the electrical conductivity of the specimen can be
evaluated.

Applications of Hall Effect

1) The sign (electrons or holes) of charge carrier is determined.
2) The carrier concentration (number of charge carriers per unit volume) can be
determined.
3) The mobility of charge carriers is measured directly.
4) Electrical conductivity of the material can be determined.
5) It can be used to determine whether the given material is metal, insulator or
semiconductor.
6) From the knowledge of measured Hall voltage, the unknown magnetic field
can be measured provided the value of Hall coefficient for the slab is known.

2.11 DIODES
Introduction
The energy levels of a semiconductor can be modified so that a material
(e.g. silicon or germanium) that is normally an insulator will conduct electricity. Energy level
structure of a semiconductor is quit complicated requires a quantum mechanical treatment.
E E E

Fermi level Conduction band

EF Egap

Egap Conduction band Egap Conduction band

Fermi level Fermi level

EF EF

0 0 0
Valence band Valence band Valence band

(a) Semiconductor (b) Metal (c) Crystalline insulator

Figure 2.12
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.21

Sl.No. Material Example Resistivity (  -cm)

1. Conductor Copper 1.56 × 10–6

2. Semiconductor Silicon 103 – 106

3. Insulator Ceramics 1011 – 1014

 Doping is a process where impurities are added to the semiconductor to lower

its resistivity

Silicon has 4 electrons in its valence level.

We add atoms which have a different number of valence shell electrons.

3 or 5 to a piece of silicon.

Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony have 5 valence electrons.

Boron, Aluminium, Indium have 3 valence electrons.

 N type silicon:
Adding atoms which have 5 valence electrons makes the silicon more negative.

The majority carriers are the excess electrons.

 P type silicon:
Adding atoms which have 3 valence electrons makes the silicon more
positive.

The majority carriers are “holes”. A hole is the lack of an electron in the
valence shell.

Si Si Si B Si As
+4 +4 +4 +3 +4 +5

Normal Silicon P Type Silicon N Type Silicon

Figure 2.13
2.22 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Diodes
 Diodes are used to:
 protect circuits by limiting the voltage (clipping and clamping)
 turn AC into DC (voltage rectifier)
 voltage multipliers (e.g. double input voltage)
 non-linear mixing of two voltages (e.g. amplitude modulation)
 Symbol for Diode

Anode Cathode

Positive current flow

Figure 2.14

 Diodes (and transistors) are non-linear device: V IR

Construction of a Diode
 Put a piece of N type silicon next to a piece of P type silicon.
 Linbiased diode

Depletion zone
P N
Mobile electron
Mobile hole
Fixed ionized acceptor atom
Ed
Fixed ionized doner atom

Silicon + Boron Silicon + Arsenic

Very small leakage current

Figure 2.15
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.23

 Forward biased diode

Very small
depletion zone
P EB N

Barrier due to depletion

Region very small
Ed
Large current can flow

Forward current
Figure 2.16

 Reversed biased diode

Very large
depletion zone
P EB N

Barrier due to depletion

Region very large
Ed
Small leakage current

Figure 2.17

V- I Characteristics

Forward current
+ –
+ –
mA

A

10 V
Reverse Forward
voltage voltage
0.5 V
A

Reverse current

Figure 2.18
2.24 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

 Diode is forward biased when V anode > Vcathode

 Voltage drop across diode is (almost) independent of diode current.
 Effective resistance (impedance) of diode is small.
 Diode is reverse biased when V anode < Vcathode
 Diode conducts current very weakly (typically < A)
 Diode current is (almost) independent of voltage, until breakdown.
 Effective resistance (impedance) of diode is very large.
 Current voltage relationship for a diode can be expressed as:
l = ls(eeV/kT – 1)
known as: “diode”, “rectifier”, or “Ebers-Moll” equation
ls = reverse saturation current (typically < A)
k = Boltzmann’s constant, e = electron charge, T = temperature
At room temperature, kT/e = 25.3 mV,
l = lse3kT if V > 0 and l = –l, if V < 0
Effective resistance of forward biased diode (V > 0) diode: dV/dl = (kT/e)/l
= 25 /l, l in mA.
 Diode Characteristics
 reverse voltage and current
 peak current and voltage
 capacitance
 recovery time
 sensitivity to temperature
Types of Diodes
Junction diode (ordinary type)
Light emitting (LED)
Photodiodes (absorbs light, gives current)
Schottiky (high speed switch, low turn on voltage, Al, on Silicon)
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.25

Tunnel (l vs V slightly different than jd’s, negative resistance!)

Veractor (junction cap, varies with voltage)
Zener (special junction diode, use reversed biased)
Examples of Diode Circuits
Simplest circuit

mA

15
V=1V

I R = 100 10

V diode
5
Load line

V
0.5 1

Figure 2.19

In diode circuits we still use Kirchhoff’s law:

Vin = Vd + ldR
ld = Vin / R – Vd / R
For this circuit ld vs. Vd is a straight line with the following limits:
Vd = 0  ld = Vin / R = 10 mA
Vd = 1 V  ld = 0
The straight line (load line) is all possible (V d, l) for the circuit. The diode curve
is all possible (V d, l) for the diode. The place where these two lines intersect gives us
the actual voltage and current for this circuit.
2.26 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the number of electron-hole pairs per cubic metre in an intrinsic
silicon at 310K, the value of its forbidden energy gap being 1.12 electron
volt. The number of electron-hole pairs per cubic metre in pure germanium
crystal is 2.5 × 10 19 at 300 K and the value of E g for germanium is 0.72 eV.
(Given : Boltzmann constant ‘k’ = 1.38 × 10 –23 J/K).
The density of electron-hole pair in an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

3
 2kT  2 3   Eg 
n1 = 2 2  m *
h m*e  4
exp   per cubic metre.
 h   2kT 

This can be written as

n1 = A T3/2 exp (–Eg/2kT)
When Eg is expressed in electron volt, it is equal to eE g joule.
For germanium, n i = 2.5 × 1019 per cubic metre.

  1.6  10 19  0.72 

2.5 × 1019 = A(300)3/2 exp   23


 2  1 . 38  10  300 

  11600  0.72 
= A(300)3/2 exp  2  300
 ....1
 
The density of electron-hole pairs in silicon

  11600  1.12 
ni = A(310)3/2 exp  2  310  ....2
 

32
 310    11600  1.12 
  exp  
2 ni  300   2  310 
gives 
1 2.5  1019   11600  0.72 
exp  
 2  300 
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.27

 The density of electron hole pairs in silicon

  116  1.12 
exp  
 6.2 
= 2.5 × 1019 × (1.033)3/2   116  0.72 
exp  
 6 

= 2.4 × 1016 per cubic metre.

2. Calculate the intrinsic carrier density, intrinsic conductivity and resistivity

at 300K in germanium. Suppose one boron atom for every 10 5 germanium
atoms is added, what are the new values of resistivity and conductivity of
germanium?
Given : For Germanium,
Atomic weight = 72.6; density = 5400 kg/m³
Avogardo number = 6.025 × 1026;
Mobility of electron = 0.4m²/volt-second
Mobility of hole = 0.2 m²/volt-second
Electronic charge = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb
Mass of electron = 4.108 × 10–31kg;
Bandgap = 0.7 eV; Boltzmann constant = 1.38 × 10 –23 J/K
Planck’s constant = 6.625 × 10–34 J s.
3/ 2
 2 mkT 
ni = 2 2  
exp  E g / 2kT 
 h 
As in the previous problem, substituting all the values correspondingly and converting
electron volt into joule we get
ni = 2.1 × 1019/m³
Now conductivity  = ni e(µe + µh)
= 2.1 × 1019 × 1.6 × 10-19 × (0.4 + 0.2)
= 2.016 ohm–1 metre–1.

1
Resistivity  = = 0.496 ohm metre.

2.28 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

6.025  10 26  5400
Number of germanium atoms per metre³ =
72.6
= 4.5 × 1028

4.5  10 28
Boron density =
105
= 4.5 × 1023 atom/m³.
Approximately the hole density is about 10 8 times greater that electron density,
we can neglect the electron contribution in calculating the electrical conductivity.
  = peµp
= 4.5 × 1023 × 1.6 × 10 –19 × 0.2
  = 1.44 × 104 ohm–4 metre–1

1
and  =

= 0.694 × 10–4 ohm metre
Germanium becomes p-type semiconductor due to the addition of boron atoms.
Further conductivity increases enormously nearly 10 4 times.
3. A n type semiconductor specimen has hall coefficient RH = 3.66 × 10–4 m³/
coulomb. The conductivity of specimen is found to be 112 ohm –1 m –1 .
Calculate the charge carrier density n e and electron mobility at room
temperature.

3 1
RH = 8 ne e

3 1 3 1
 ne = 8  R e  8 = 2 × 1022/m³
H 3.66  10  1.6  1019
4

 = e ne (µe + µh)
Assuming µh = 0,
 = e n e µe

 112 m2
µe =   0 . 035 .
e ne 1.6  10 19  2  10 22 Vs
SEMICONDUCTORS 2.29

4. Find the conductivity of intrinsic silicon at 300 K. It is given that the intrinsic
concentration at 300 K in silicon is 1.5 × 10 16 /m³ and the mobilities of
electrons and holes in silicon are 0.13 m²/V-s and 0.05 m²/V-s respectively.
The number of silicon atoms/m³ = 5 × 10 28 . Also find the resultant
conductivity if donor or acceptor type impurity is added to the extent of 1
impurity atom in 10 8 silicon atoms.
a) Intrinsic conductivity of silicon  = nie (µe + µh)
= 1.5 × 1016 × 1.6 × 10–19 × (0.13 + 0.05)
= 0.432 × 10–3 ohm–1 m–1.
b) Conductivity of silicon during donor impurity is added can be calculated as follows.
N D = 5 × 1020 atoms/m³ since 1 donor atom in 10 8 silicon atoms.
Further n  ND

n =
n i2


1.5  1016 2

 0.45  1012 / m 3
ND 5  10 20

The concentration of holes can be neglected.

 = ne µe

= 5 × 1020 × 1.6 × 10 –19 × 0.13

= 10.4 ohm–1m–1

c) Conductivity of silicon during acceptor impurity is added

NA = 5 × 1020 atoms/m³

p  NA

 n = ni²/NA = 0.45 × 1012/m³

 = p e µh = 5 × 1020 × 1.6 × 10 –19 × 0.05

= 4 ohm–1m–1.
2.30 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

6. The electrical conductivity of germanium at 20°C is 2 mho m –1. What is its

conductivity at 40°C? Bandgap of germanium = 0.72 eV.
Since  = o e-Eg/2kT

2   Eg  1 1 
  exp    
1  2k  T2 T1  

Taking logarithms on both sides, we have

 2  Eg 1 1 
2.303 log10     2k   
T2 
 1  T1


 
log10   2  0.72  1.6  10 19  1 1  = 0.395
    23 
 
 1 2.303  2  1.38  10  293 313 

 log10  2 = 2.483 (or)  2

= 2.483 × 2 = 4.97 mho m–1.