4 Opto Electronic Devices

4.1 PHOTODETECTORS
Photodetectors or Photosensors are sensors of light or other electromagnetic
energy. Photodetectors has a PN junction that converts light photons into current. The
absorbed photons make electron hole pair in the depletion region.

When an electron-hole pair is generated due to the incident radiation, the pair
separated at the junctions as a result of the existence of electric field. As a result, it
generates open circuit voltage or short circuit current. This is the principle applied in
the photodiodes to produce both voltage and current in an external circuit.
Incident radiation

Electrodes

D
L

(a) Photo-conducting material (b) Photo-conductor detector

geometry of slab circuit symbol

Figure 4.1

The geometry of the slab of a photo conducting material is shown in figure 4.1.
Let L W and D be respectively the length, width and thickness of the conducting material.
It consists of two electrodes on opposite faces.
4.2 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

The incident radiation falls on the opposite surfaces of the materials. The
detectorate the terminal devices and are used as light dependent resistors. The commonly
used symbol for a photo conductive detector consists of a resistance symbol with incident
arrows representing the radiations, as shown in figure. The detectors are available in
the form of photodiodes and photo transistors.
Photodetector Bias Circuit
The photodetector (P) is connected in series with a voltage source and a load
resistor RL as shown in figure. When a light radiation is incident on the photodetector,
whose energy is greater than E g, the increase in conductivity of the detector takes
place. As a result, the flow of current in the circuit leads to an increase in potential
across the load resistor RL. The same can be measured using a high impedance Voltmeter.
A blocking capacitor C is introduced in the output line to remove any dc components
while measuring the current in the circuit, due to time variations of the incident light.

P
C
Bias voltage

Output
RL voltage

Figure 4.2: Photodetector bias circuit

The Sensitivity and linearity of the detector depends on R L. One can obtain the
optium value of RL by a fractional change in the resistance of the photo detector when
it is under illumination. When the change in the fractional resistance is less than 5%.
The sensitivity shows a large value at R L = R D, where R D is the resistance of
the photodetector. On the other hand, if the change in the resistance is large,
i.e., RL << RD, which is required for output voltage measurements.
Let Io and I be the intensities of the incident and transmitted radiations, respectively,
on the semiconductors detector materials. Therefore, the average generations of charge
carries, i.e., electron-hole pairs per unit volume is
r g = /v
Where is the quantum efficiency of the absorption process and v is the frequency of
radiation (=c/).
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.3

Applications
i) Photoconductivity detectors in the form of single crystal or polycrystal
materials are prepared in the form of Schottky barriers, n-p homojunctions,
n-p hetrojunctions, n-p-n, or p-n-p transistors with gain greater than I.
ii) The television camera vidicon and electrophotography are the two applications
in the device form.
iii) It is used to detect a variety of light and particle as a light controlled switch.
iv) The silver halide coated on the photographic film is also based on
photoconductivity.

4.2 PHOTO CONDUCTORS

If radiation falls upon a semiconductor, its conductivity increases. This
photoconductive effect is explained as follows: Radiant energy supplied to the
semiconductor ionizes covalent bonds: that is, these bonds are broken and hole-electron
pairs in excess of those generated thermally are created. These increased current carriers
decrease the resistance of the material. Hence such a device is called a photoresistor
or photoconductor.

Conduction band

(ii)
Donor level
Eg (i)
Acceptor level
(iii)

Valence band

Figure 4.3

Figure shows the energy diagram of a semiconductor having both acceptor and
donor impurities. If photons of sufficient energies illuminate this specimen,
photogeneration takes place.
4.4 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

The following three transistions are possible:

i) The electron-hole pair can be created by a high-energy photon. This is called

intrinsic excitation.

ii) A photon may excite a donorm electron into the conduction band.

iii) A valence electron may go into an acceptor state.

The last two transitions are called impurity excitations. The density of states
in the conduction and valence bands is much greater than the density of impurity
states. So photoconductivity is due principally to intrinsic excitation.

Cut-off wavelength and spectral response

The minimum energy of a photon required for intrinsic excitation is the forbidden-
gap energy of the semiconductor material. Hence the minimum frequency v c cause
photoconduction is given by

hvc = Eg

corresponding maximum wavelength or critical wavelength is given by

hc/c = E g

If c is expressed in microns and Eg in electron volts,

c = 1.24/Eg

100
Relative response %

75

Ge
50

Si
25

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Wavelength (m)

Figure 4.4
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.5

Figure 4.4 shows spectral response versus wavelength curve for Ge and Si.

If the wavelength  of the radiation exceeds c, then the energy of the photon is
less than Eg, such a photon cannot cause a valence electron to enter the conduction
band. Hence c is called the critical, or cut-off wavelength, or long wavelength threshold,
of the material. For Si, E g = 1.1ev and c = 1.13m whereas for Ge, E g = 0.72 ev and
c = 1.73 m at room temperature.

4.3 PHOTO DIODE

A photo diode is essentially a reverse biased P-N junction diode which is designed
to respond to photon absorption.
Principle
A reverse biases P-N junction diode has a reverse saturation current which is
mainly due to the flow of the minority carriers. When light is incident on the depletion
region of the reverse biased pn junction, the concentration of minority carriers (electrons
in p type and holes in n type) increases to a great extent.
But the change in majority carriers is too low. Consequently reverse current
increases. The reverse current through the diode varies almost linearly with the intensity
of light.
Construction

Clear plastic
–
P +
Light

N R

(a) (b)

Figure 4.5

A photo diode consists of a P-N junction embedded in a clear plastic capsule [see
Figure 4.5(a)]. The symbol of a photo diode is shown in Figure 4.5(b)].
Light is allowed to fall upon one surface across the junction. All the sides of the
plastic capsule, excepting the illuminated one, are either painted black or enclosed in a
metallic case.
4.6 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

Working and Characteristics

When photo diode is kept under dark condition and a sufficient reverse voltage is
applied, then an almost constant current, independent of magnitude of reverse bias, is
obtained. This current corresponds to the reverse saturation current due to thermally
generated minority carriers and is denoted by Id. Majority charge carries are not allowed
to cross the junction by the potential hill under this reverse bias condition.
When light falls on the diode surface, additional electron-hole pairs are formed.
But since the concentration of majority carriers is much greater as compared to that of
minority carriers, the percentage increase of majority carriers is much smaller than the
percentage increase of minority carriers. Hence, we can neglect the increase in majority
carrier density and can consider the radiation entirely as minority carrier injector. These
injected minority carriers diffuse to the junction, cross it and contribute to the additiional
current.
Thus under large reverse bias conditions, the totald reverse current is given by
I = Is + Id
Where Is is the short circuit current and is proportional to light intensity.
With any bias V, the reverse current and thermal electron-hole pairs i.e., dark
current is given by

I d = I0 1  e  vc  kT

Hence, the volt-ampere characteristic of photo diode is given by

I = Is  I 0 1  e  vc  kT


2
2000 Lumen/m
Diode current (mA)

2
1500 Lumen/m

2
1000 Lumen/m

Dark current

Reverse Voltage V

Figure 4.6
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.7

The volt-ampere characteristic curve of a photodiode is as shown in figure. From

the curve it is seen that
i) The current increases with increase in the level of illumination for a given
reverse voltage.
ii) Only for the dark current at zero voltage the current is zero.
The photodiode finds extensive application in light detection systems, reading of
film sound track, light operated switches, high-speed reading of computer punched cards
and tapes.

4.3.1 p-i-n Photodiodes

A positive-intrinsic-negative (p-i-n) photodiode consists of p and n regions
separated by a very lightly n doped intrinsic region. Silicon pin photodiodes are used at
0.8 m wavelength and InGaAS pin photodiodes are used at 1.3 m and 1.55 m
wavelengths. In normal operation, the pin photodiode is under high reverse bias voltage.
So the intrinsic region of diode is fully depleted of carriers. When an incident photon
has an energy greater than or equal to the bandgap energy of the photo diode material,
the electron-hole pair is created due to the absorption of photon. Such photon generated
carriers in the depleted intrinsic region where most of the incident light photons are
absorbed, are separated by the high electric field present in the depletion region and
collected across the reverse biased junction. This gives rise to a photocurrent flow in
the external circuit. The pin photodiode acts as a linear device such that the photocurrent
is directly proportional to incident optical power. Thus
I = RP
where I = photocurrent
P = incident optical power

q I
R = Responsibility of the photodiode = h v . Thus R = .
P
Here  = quantum efficiency of the diode
number of electron  hole pair generated
= number of incident photons
= I/q/P/h v
hv = energy of the incident photon
q = charge of electron
4.8 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

The responsivity of the photodiode depends on the bandgap of the material,

operating wavelength, the doping and the thickness of the p, i and n regions of the
diode. For example to get high quantum efficiency and hence the maximum sensitivity,
the thickness of the depletion layer should be increased so that the absorption of photon
will be maximum. But it reduces the response speed of the photodiode. In the wavelength
1.3 m and 1.55 m, InGaAS pin photodiode have high quantum efficiency and high
responsivity.

Ohmic contact

P I N
Detector
id CD RL output
voltage

(a) (b)

Figure 4.7: PIN photodiode with reverse bias and its equivalent circuit

Figure shows the photodiode with reverse bias and its equivalent circuit.
Analysing the above circuit, the bandwidth is inversely proprortional to rise time ‘tr’.

0.35 0.35
Thus f3dB = 
tr 2.19 R L C D

For high speed applications, C D should be small (–1 pF)

When tr is very large, the speed of response is limited. For PIN diodes, t r = 0.5 to
10 ns. The PIN photodiodes have wide bandwidth and high sensitivity than
photoconductors.
The different materials used in different regions of a PIN diode are given below:
Region Different materials
p In Al As,, Al Ga As
i In Ga As,, Ga As
n In Ga As,, Al Ga As
Substrate n ln P, n Ga As
PIN photodiodes are generally heterojunction type. These are mainly used in the
wavelengths from 0.8 m to 1.7 m.
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.9

4.3.2 High Speed Photodiodes

PIN photodiodes have high speed response or fast response. Generally the response
time depends on
i) the transit time of the photocarriers in the depletion region.
ii) the diffusion time of the photo charge carriers generated outside the depletion
region and
iii) time constant RC of the photodiode circuit. The above three factors depend
on the absorption coefficient, depletion layer width and junction capacitance.
To get high speed response, the time constant RC should be small particularly the
capacitance ‘C’ is about 1 pF. The diffusion time and transit time are also about few
nano seconds. Based on these facts, In Al, As, In GaAs, Al Ga As photodiodes have
high speed response. Similarly In As, In Sb and Hg Cd Te photodiodes are have fast
response (< 10 ns).

4.3.3 Long Wavelength Photodiodes

Silicon photodiodes are used to detect wavelength from 0.2 to 1.1 m. But
germanium photodiodes are used to detect wavelengths from 0.5 to 1.8 m. In the case
of In As photodiodes, the wavelengths are detected from 1 to 3.8 m.
i) In optical fiber communications, for the wavelength range from 1.3 m to
1.7 m, In Ga As, In Al As, Al Ga As photodiodes are used. These have high
speed response, high optical absorption and high quantum efficiency and low
dark current.
ii) Germanium photodiodes are also used upto the wavelengths 2 m. These are
used in high data (800 Mb/s) transmission link operating at longer wavelengths.
iii) Lead sulphide (PbS) is a well known near infrared photodiode material which
detects wavelengths from 1 to 3.4 m.
iv) Indium Antimonide (In Sb) photodiodes are used to 7 m and have high speed
of response (< 50 ns). Its performance can be further increased by cooling it
to 77 K (liquid nitrogen temperature).
v) Mercury cadmium telluride (Hgx Cd1 – x Te) photodiodes consists of semimetal
Hg Te and the semiconductor Cd Te. These can detect wavelengths from 5 to
25 m. To reduce noise, it should be cooled by 77 K.
4.10 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

4.4 PHOTO TRANSISTOR

Phototransistor is an npn or pnp transistor in which the forward current is controlled
by the incident light at the pn junction. Due to transistor action, the current is amplified.
For the normal operation of the photo transistor (npn), the base is kept open. The emitter
region is given a negative potential while collector region is given a positive potential.
Radiation is concentrated on the region near the collector junction J C.
C
IC

Radiation n
JC +
p – VCE
JE
n

Figure 4.8

The phototransistor is usually connected in a common-emitter configuration with

the base open. The junction J E is slightly forward biased. The junction J C is reverse
biased. Assume first, that there is no radiant excitation. Under these circumstances
minority carriers are generated thermally. The electrons crossing from the base to the
collector, as well as the holed crossing from the collector to the base, constitute the
reverse saturation collector current I CO.

10 2
10 mW/cm
8.0
Io Collector current. mA

6.0
5.0
4.0

2.0
1.0
0
0 5.0 10 15 20 25
VCE, Collector - emitter voltage, V

Figure 4.9
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.11

The collector current is given by

I C = ( + 1) (ICO + IL)
Due to transistor action, the current caused by the radiation multiplied by the
large factor ( + 1).
The output volt-ampere characteristics of an npn silicon phototransistor are shown
in figure for three different values of illumination intensities.

Uses

i) Phototransistors are used in light operated relays.

ii) They are also used to compare the intensities of different light sources made
for infrared detection.

4.5 LASER DIODES

Laser diode or Diode Laser is a semiconductor device similar to LED in which
laser beam is created at diodes junction. These are used to convert the electrical signal
to light signal.
Semiconductor Laser Materials
Among the semiconductors, only the direct band gap semiconductors are used.
Direct band gap is the one in which a conduction band electron can recombine directly
with a hole in the valance band. So emission of light is possible only in the direct band
gap semiconductors. Most of the compound semiconductors have the direct gap.
These is no elemental direct band semiconductor formed by group III elements
(Al, Ga, In) and group V elements (P, As, Sb). For example in the 800-900 nm wavelength
range, Ga1_x , Alx As alloy is used where

Composition of aluminium arsenide

x =
Composition of gallium arsenide

which determines the band gap of the alloy. Similarly in the 0.92 - 1.65 m wavelength
range, In 1–x, Gax Asy P1–y alloy is used where y = 2.2 x and 0  x  0.47. Here y
determines the band gap of the alloy. Further the direct band gap semiconductors formed
by group IV and VI such as Pb Te and Pb Sn Te have been developed to design lasers
for the middle infrared region.
4.12 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

P-N junction laser diodes

i) Homojunction laser
Homojunction laser means that a p-n junction is formed by a single crystalline
material such that the basic material has been the same on both sides of the junction.
For example, in GaAs laser, both the p-layer and n-layer are made up of Ga As only.
Drawbacks of homojunction lasers
1. Threshold current density is very large (400 A/mm 2).
2. Only pulsed mode output is obtained.
3. Laser output has large beam divergence.
4. Coherence and stability are very poor.
5. Electromagnetic field confinement is poor.
ii) Heterojunction laser
Heterojunction means that the material on one side 'of the junction differs from
that on the other side of the junction. In the. modern Ga As diode laser, a heterojunction
is formed between GaAs and GaAl As.
Mostly the heterojunction laser diodes are used as optical sources in the optical
fiber communication because they have so many advantages.
1. Threshold current density is small (10 A/mm2).
2. Continuous wave operation can also be possible.
3. Due to efficient waveguide structure, the beam divergence is small, carrier
and optical confinement can be achieved simultaneously; high coherence and
monochromacity are obtained.
4. High output power (= 10 mW) can be achieved even with low threshold current.
5. These are highly stable with longer life.
Operation of a laser diode
i) Absorption
An electron in the valence band can make an upward transition to the conduction
hand by absorbing a photon of energy (E c - Ev) where Ev is the maximum energy of the
valence band and E c is the minimum energy of the conduction band.
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.13

ii) Spontaneous emission

An electron in the conduction band can recombine with a hole in the valence
band by spontaneously emitting a photon of energy (E c - Ev).
iii)Stimulated emission
An electron in the conduction band can recombine with a hole in the valence
band in the presence of a stimulating or inducing photon whose energy also equals to
(Ec – Ev) giving stimulated emission, The emitted photon and inducing photon travel in
the same direction with the same energy. The emitted photon is fully coherent with the
inducing photon.
Calculation of wavelength of emitted radiations
Now Ec – Ev = Eg where Eg is the band gap energy of the material.

hC hC
 Eg = hv =
 (or)  = E g

Taking wavelength in m and Eg in eV, the above relation reduces to

1.24
 (m) = E  eV 
g

4.6 LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED)

Light emitting diode (LED) emits light by injection luminescence. Here a p-n
junction diode is operated under forward bias. Under forward bias, majority carriers
from both sides of the junction cross the internal potential barrier and enter the material
at the other side where they become the minority charge carriers and cause the local
minority carrier population to be larger than normal. This is called minority carrier injection.
The excess minority carriers diffuse away from the junction recombining with majority
carriers as they do so (figure 4.10).
P-type
– – N-type
– – C.B
h Fermi level

h
Fermi level

+ +
+ + V.B
Figure 4.10: Radiative recombination of the injected minority carriers
with the majority carriers in a forward biased p-n junction.
4.14 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

In LED, every injected charge carrier takes part in a radiative recombination and
hence gives rise to an emitted photon. In reverse bias, no carrier injection takes place
and consequently no light is emitted.

The number of photons emitted is proportional to the carrier injection rate or the
total current flowing. The wavelength of the emission is given by

hC hC
 Ec – E v  Eg   
 Eg

For example, in Ga As, E g = 1.44 eV. This corresponds to a wavelength value

 = 0.86µm. Thus by adding phosphorus with Ga As the value of the bandgap is increased
and the wavelength of the emitted radiation is in the visible range.

Requirements for a suitable LED material

i) Energy gap more than 2 eV or equal to 2 eV.

ii) There should be both p and n type layers.

iii) Low resistivity.

iv) Efficient radiative path ways must exist.

Doping with B, Al, Sc and Be in Ga As P gives rise to yellow, blue, green and red
emission reflectively. Further GaP, InP and CdS are also LED materials.

Table 4.1: Communication based LEDs and their properties

LED material Bandgap energy (eV) Wavelength range (µm)

In Ga As P 0.73 - 1.35 0.9 - 1.7

In Ga As 0.95 - 1.24 1 - 1.3

Ga Al As 1.40 - 1.55 0.8 - 0.9

Ga As 1.4 0.9

The above LEDs are used in the optical fiber communication as light sources.
These have lifetime more than 10 5 hours.
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.15

To get high efficient emission of radiation or radiative recombination process,

nr 1
 
nr  r r
1
nr

Here  r - Radiative life time;

 nr - Non radiative life time
To get high efficiency, either  nr is increased or  r is reduced.
Transient Response of LEDs
Usually hetero junction LEDs are widely used in the communication than
homo-junction LEDs.
The rise time to the half current point (which is also the half power point) of the
LED is given by

CS Ip
t1/2 = ln   ln 2
 Ip IS
and the 10 - 90 present rise time is given by

 CS 
t10 – 90 =     ln 9

  Ip 
where Cs is the space-charge capacitance and it will be very small (350 pF). Further
q
= and Ip is the current used to drive the LED and  is the minority carrier life
2 kT
time. In the high current limit,
t1/2 =  ln 2 and t10–90 =  ln 9
Thus the rise time depends on minority carrier life time. If the carrier life is
reduced, the rise time is also decreased as well as the band width of LED is increased
which results in the decrease of power output. The power bandwidth product,

1 hC
P J
r q

where J = Drive current density and

 r = Radiative life time.
4.16 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

The  P is constant for a given current injection level. Suppose doping in the
active layer is increased, then it reduces the radiative life time which increases the
LED band width. If the band width is increased, then the power is decreased. Faster
response LEDs have small rise time and hence their radiative life time is reduced. The
band width is increased and the power is reduced. Otherwise, the faster LEDs generally
emit less power than slow response LEDs.
Hetero junction LED structures
There are high radiance surface emitting hetero junction LEDs and edge emitting
double hetero junction LEDs.
i) Surface emitting LED

Fiber

Epoxy

Metallization

Substrate
n - GaAs

N - Ga Al As wide bandgap
Confinement p - Ga As narrow bandgap
layers
P - Ga Al As wide band gap
SiO 2 SiO 2
Isolation Isolation
Metallization
heat sink

Active layer Metal contact

Figure 4.11: Surface emitting LED

Construction:
N p P structure forms a double hetero junction layers. A layer of Ga As which
has a narrow gap is sandwiched between two layers of GaAl As which has a wider
bandgap and a lower refractive index (Fig. 4.11). These two layers of Ga Al As form as
confinement layers.
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.17

This dual confinement gives high efficiency and high radiance. The Ga As layer
is the active layer or recombination region and is in the form of circular region. This
area is typically 20 to 50 m in diameter. These have high drive currents. The surface
emitting LED has a. radiation pattern as in the lambertion source which is isotropic with
a 1200 half power beam width. It we view the pattern from any direction, it is equally
bright.
ii) Edge emitting LED
Metallization

Confinement
layers Stripe contact

Substrate
Metallization SiO 2 isolation
Heat sink layer
Active area

LED output

Figure 4.12: Edge emitting LED

Construction:
GaAs forms an active area which is in the form of circular region at the middle of
the active layer. Ga AI AB layers form the optical confinement or light guiding layers
whose refractive index is lower than that of active region.
The output of the beam is highly incoherent. Lengths of the active regions range
from 100 to 150 m.
The emitted beam is lambertion (Fig. 4.12) so that radiance B  = B 0 cos 
where Bo is the value of radiance at the centre of the beam.
In the plane perpendicular to the junction, the half" power beam width is very
small. The emission pattern of the edge emitting diode is more directional than that of
the surface emitting LED. Drive current is about 100 mA with output optical power
about 0.5 W to 10 W. Manufacturing of edge emitting LEDs is more expensive.
Modulation bandwidth is about 500 kHz with rise time of 600 to 800 ns.
4.18 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

In Ga As P and Ga As P are used as LED materials at 1.3 m. Ga Al As is used

as a LED material at 0.85 m having smaller rise time about 2 to 20 ns and bandwidth
is greater than 200 MHz. The spectral width is about 50 nm at 0.85 m wavelength and
70 nm at 1.3 m wavelength.
General properties of LEDs
The life time of LED is about 10 5 hours. The edge emitters have lower drive
current than the surface emitters. If the drive current is 100 mA, the optical output
power is in between 0.5 W to 10 W. The manufacturing of edge emitting LED is
more expensive than the surface emitting LED. The modulation band width of LED is
comparatively low (~ 500 kHz) with rise time of 600 to 800 ns.
But In Ga As P edge emitting LED at 1.3 m and Ga Al As edge emitting LED at
1.3 m and Ga Al As edge emitting LED at 0.85 m have smaller rise time (2 to 20 ns),
Thus the band width is greater than 200 MHz. The band width can be further increased
by reducing the optical output. The spectral width of surface emitting LEDs is about
1.3 nm and so the fiber bandwidth is reduced. For edge emitting LEDs the spectral
width is more such that it is 50 nm at 0.85 m wavelength and 70 nm at 1.3 urn wavelength.
LEDs in computers
LEDs are used in computers for display purposes. Mostly homo junction LEDs
are used.
Construction of LED
A shallow p-n junction is formed and electrical contacts made to both regions
whilst leaving as much of the upper surface of the p material uncovered so that the flow
of radiation from the device is impeded as little as possible. The p-n junction is surrounded
by plastic encapsulation since the reflection losses at the semiconductor-plastic interface
are lesser than for a corresponding semiconductor - air interface.

Al
Plastic
Electrical contacts

SiO2 p-n
junction encapsulation
p

Substrate
Electrical contacts
Figure 4.13: LED Structure
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.19

If we take Ga As/air, when n 1 = 3.6 and n2 = 1

2
1  n2    n  n 2 
Then fractional transmission, F =   1   1 2    0.13
4  n1    n1  n 2  

But with Ga As / plastic where n 1 = 3.6 and n2 = 1.5, F = 0.036

There is a three fold increase of light transmission.
LEDs are used extensively in segmental and dot matrix displays of numeric and
alpha numeric characters. Several LEDs are used in series to form one segment while
a single LED may be used to form a decimal point.

4.7 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

Seven segment displays are the most commonly used numeric display devices. A
number of LED’s may be grouped to form a display as illustrated in figure. Actually
seven segment display consists of seven LED’s which can be switched ON and OFF
individually to display a range of pattern. From the figure, it is clear that when the
LED’s a,b,g,e and d conducts, the number 2 is displayed. Similarly the combination
a,b,g,c and d corresponds to the number 3 and so on.

f b
g

e c

Figure 4.14

The seven segment display is the popular one used in calculator and other display
systems such as clocks, wrist-watches, measuring instruments, etc.

4.8 ADVANTAGES OF LEDS IN ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS

1. LEDs are miniature in size and any number can be stacked together in a small
space to form numerical display.
2. The light intensity of LEDs can be controlled easily by varying the current
flow.
4.20 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

3. LEDs are rugged and can therefore withstand shocks and vibrations.

4. They can be operated over a wide range of temperatures from 0 to 70ºC.

5. They are very fast in operation. They can be switched on and off in a time
less than 1 nanosecond.

6. LEDs are available such that they emit light in different colours like red, green,
yellow and amber.

7. It has long life and has a high degree of reliability.

8. It has low drive voltage and low noise.

9. Unlike liquid crystal display, the angle of viewing is not limited.

10.The brightness of these displays is sufficient for any environment.

Disadvantages of LEDs in electronic displays

1. These are not suited for large area display because of their high cost.

2. When we compare with liquid crystal display, LEDs consume more energy.

Table 4.2: Different LEDs for visible light emission

Colour and
Material Bandgap LED structure
wave length (nm)

Blue, 450 Ga N direct heterojunction

Blue, 480 Si C indirect homojunction

Green, 555 Ga P indirect homojunction

Yellow green, 570 Al In Ga P direct heterojunction

Yellow, 585 Ga As P:N indirect homojunction

Amber, 595 Al In Ga P direct heterojunction

Red, 630 Ga As P:N indirect homojunction

Red, 650 Ga As P direct homojunction

Red 700 Ga P:Zn O indirect homojunction.

OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.21

4.9 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) is one of the important passive types of display.
Liquid crystals are the intermediate phases between liquid and crystal. Liquids have
fluidity and isotropic properties. Crystals have rigidity, lattice structure and anisotropic
properties. Liquid crystals have orientational order but lack of positional order with
fluidity and anisotropy in dielectric constant. 4 Methoxy - 4’ n - Butyl BenzylideneAniline
(MBBA) molecules are used as LC display material. It can act as a liquid crystal between
21°C to 48°C only.
So we can operate LC displays only in this temperature range. It has elongated
rod like structure. There are three phases in liquid crystals: Smetic, Nematic and
Cholestric: Smetic phase molecules are cigar shaped and are arranged in layers; molecules
can move forward and backward and not up and down. i.e. Two dimensional motion
can be possible like a soap bubble. Nematic phase molecules have no layered structure.
But all the molecular axes are parallel to each other. This can be thought of as
one dimensional liquid. Cholestric phase molecules are plate like shaped and there is a
stack of thin layers. As one moves down the stack, direction of orientation rotates in the
manner of a screw. Crystals in this phase possess double refraction.

General properties
1. Liquid crystals are very sensitive to environmental conditions like temperature,
mechanical stress and electric fields. Any change in these parameters will
change the optical properties of liquid crystals.
2. Cholestric phase can change the colour of radiation when the temperature is
changed. This fact is used to measure temperature of the children as well as
used in thermography to detect breast cancer.
3. Nematic phase is widely used for displays. This is based on change of plane
of polarisation during the application of electric field.
Another important liquid crystal is phenyl cyano biphenyl which has pnematic form
between 18°C to 35°C. The liquid crystal displays are of two types:
1. Dynamic scattering display
2. Twisted nematic field effect display.
Now - a - days the dynamic scattering display is not used because it has shorter
life time, high power consumption and its operating voltage is around 15 V. It has been
used upto 1975. Let us see the twisted nematic field effect display system:
4.22 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

The liquid crystal material is kept in between two glass plates which are coated
with transparent tin oxide and they can act as electrodes. The top glass plate is rotated
through 90°. Therefore the liquid crystal molecules are also twisted through 90° when
there is no applied electric field (Figure 4.15(a)).
Above the top glass plate we have polarizer and below the bottom glass plate we
have analyser in crossed positions. Under no field conditions when light passes through
the liquid crystal cell through the crossed polariser and analyser the cell appears bright
due to additional phase difference introduced by twisting.

Light Light

Polariser
Polariser

Twisted nematic
liquid crystal
molecules

Analyser Analyser
Bright Dark
(a) (b)

Figure 4.15: Twisted nematic field effect display

When we apply electric field, the liquid crystal molecules are all oriented parallel
to the field direction and there is no twisting of molecules (Figure 4.15(b)). So the cell
appears dark due to the crossed polariser and analyser. Normally we are using
transparent type display in which the digits are appearing as black coloured ones in
white back ground.

Advantages of Liquid Crystal Displays

1. It reflects light instead of generating light. So it can be viewed under a wide

range of lighting conditions.

2. It requires relatively little power since it is not generating light. For example,
in the case of LED display of 1 cm2 display area, the power consumption is
about 1 watt. But for liquid crystal display of 1 cm 2 display area, the power
consumption is less than 1 microwatt.
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.23

3. Since liquid crystal display can be in the form of thin films, the liquid crystal
display device has very small thickness.

4. It is very cheap.

Disadvantages

1. Angle of viewing is limited (maximum 45° only).

2. Contrast is poor when we compare it with LED.

3. It can be viewed only when there is some light. Otherwise it cannot be viewed.

4. It is highly sensitive to environmental conditions like temperature change,

electromagnetic interference, etc.

5. Working temperature range is small.

Table 6.4 shows the comparison between the liquid crystal display and LED display.
Table: 4.4: Comparison between LCD and LED displays
S.N LCD LED display

1. Low power consumption (µW) High power consumption (m W)

2. Suitable for large area display Not suitable for large area display.

3. Lesser cost More cost

4. Angle of viewing is limited Angle of viewing is not limited.

5. At present colour displays are not Any colour display can be made
available

6. Moderate dynamic response (µs) Fast dynamic response (n s)

7. Operating temperature is limited Operating temperature is from

(10°C to 45°C) 0°C to 70°C

8. Intensity of light can not be controlled Intensity of light can be controlled.

4.24 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the wavelength of emission from Ga As whose bandgap is 1.44 eV.

hC 6.626  10 34  3  108

    8628 Å
Eg 1.44  1.6  10 19

2. The In Ga As P diode laser has peak emission wavelength  = 1.55 µm.

What is its bandgap in eV?

1.24 1.24
E g (eV)    0.8 eV
 ( m) 1.55

3. If the quantum efficiency at 1.3 µm wavelength of light is 0.65 and the number
of photons incident at this wavelength is 5 × 105, what is the number of electron-
hole pairs generated?

number of electron  hole pairs generated

 
number of incident photons

 number of electron-hole pairs generated = 0.65 × 5 105

= 3.25 × 105
4. At 1.3 µm, the quantum efficiency of In Ga As photodetector is 0.6. Calculate
its responsibility.

 q  q  0.6  1.6  10 19  1.3  10 6

R    0.628 A / W
h hC 6.625  10 34  3  108

5. Define multiplication factor of avalanche diode. A silicon avalanche photodiode

has quantum efficiency of 0.7 at wavelength 863 nm. Suppose 0.5 µW of optical
power produces avalanche multiplied current of 10µA, calculate the avalanche
multiplication factor.

IT
Multiplication factor = M 
IP

where IT = total multiplied output current and

IP = primary unmultiplied photo current.
OPTO ELECTRONIC DEVICES 4.25

q q 
Now IP = R P0 = P0  P0
h hC

0.7  1.6 10 19  863  10 9  0.5  10 6

= = 0.243 µA.
6.625  10 34  3 108

IT 10  A
 M =   41
I P 0.243 A

6. A silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive
index of 1.47. Determine, (a) the critical angle at the core cladding interface,
(b) the N.A. for the fiber and (c) the acceptance angle in air for the fiber.

n2 1.47
The critical angle, c = sin 1  sin 1   78.5
n1 1.50


The numerical aperture N.A. = n12 – n 22 1/ 2

 1.50 2 – 1.47 2 
1/ 2
 0.30
The acceptance angle in air, max = sin–1 N.A. = 17.4°.
7. Calculate the total number of guided modes propagating in the multimode
step index fiber having diameter of 50µm and numerical aperture of 0.2 and
operating at a wavelength of 1 µm.

2 2
 d  N.A.   50  10 – 6  0.2 
N  4.9    4.9  –6   490
    1  10 

Hence the fiber can support approximately 490 guided modes. In the case of graded
index fiber, the number of modes propagated inside the fiber = (Nstep/2) = 245 only.
8. Suppose a fiber has a diameter of 5µm and its core refractive index = 1.450
and cladding refractive index = 1.447. If the wavelength of propagation is
1 µm, how many modes can be propagated inside the fiber?

2 2
 d  N.A.   5  10 6  (1.450 2 – 1.447 2 )1/ 2 
N = 4.9 ×    4.9    1
    1  10 6 
Therefore there is a single mode propagation.
4.26 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - II

9. The relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber is 0.05. If the
entrance end of fiber is facing the air medium and refractive index of core is
1.46, estimate its numerical aperture.
N.A = n1 (2)1\2 = 1.46 (2 × 0.05)1/2 = 0.46.
10. Calculate the Vnumber and number of modes propagating through the fiber having
n1 = 1.53, n2 = 1.50 and 0 = 1µm.

2a 2 2   50  (1.532 – 1.50 2 )1/ 2

Vnumber =
0

n1 – n 22 
1/ 2
=
1
 94.72

V 2 (94.72) 2
Maximum number of modes propagating through the fiber    4486.
2 2

11. A step index fiber has a diameter of 200 µm and N.A = 0.3. Compute the
number of propagating modes at an operating wavelength of 850 nm.

V 2 2 2 2
Number of modes   2 a ( N.A) 2
2 

2  (3.14) 2  100 2  10 12  (0.3) 2

  24589 modes
850  850  10 18

The number of modes is doubled to account for the two possible polarisations.
 Total number of modes = 24589 × 2 = 49178.
12. Find the cutoff wavelength of the step index multimode fiber having
core radius = 25 µm, refractive index of core = 1.48, V number = 25 and
 = 0.01.

6
2  a n1 2  = 2  5  10  1.48 2  0.01  1.315µ m.
 cutoff  25
V
13. In the design of single mode fiber, find the value of maximum value of core
radius the fiber having N.A. = 0.05 and the operating wavelength and the
operating wavelength = 1.3 µm.
We know that Vnumber of single mode fiber = 2.405

V 2.405  1.3
a mex    9.95 µm
2  ( N.A.) 2   0.05