VIJETA SERIES

VIJETA SERIES

Semiconductor
IN 1 SHOT

Kshitiz Kanik Sir

 TABLE OF CONTENT

1 1Energy band gap

21Semiconductor and its types
31PN junction,Biasing of diodes
4 Devices
Semiconductor !!
Q How does the resistance of a semiconductor change when heated ?

SOLUTION
Electronic Device
Any device whose action is based on the controlled flow of electrons through it ic
called an electronic device.

The branch of physicsthat deals with the study of these electronic devices is called
electronics.
Types of Electronic Device
The electronic devices are of two types (1. Vacuum tubes 2. Solid-state devices)
1. Vacuum tubes : These include vaccum diodes, triode and pentode.

Some of the important features of vacuum tubes are as follows:

 In vacuum tubes, electrons are obtained from a heated cathode and the flow of electrons
is controlled by varying the voltage between its different electrodes.
 A vaccum is necessary in the inter electrode region so that the electrons may not lose
their energy on colliding with air molecules in their path.
 As the electrons can flow only in one direction (from cathode to anode), so vacuum tubes
are also known as vacuum values.
 Bulky & Consumes high power & operate at high Voltage (= 100V)
 They have limited life and low reliability.
Types of Electronic Device
2. Solid-state electronic devices : In such devices, the charge carriers flow through solid-
state semiconductors.

Some of the important features of semiconductor devices are as follows:

 In a semiconductor device, simple excitations like light, heat or small applied voltage can
change the number of charge carriers.
 The charge carriers flow in the solid itself, no vacuum needed for the flow of charges as
required in vacuum tubes.
 Semiconductor devices are small in size, consume low power and operate at low voltages.
 It does not require any cathode heating for the production of charge carriers. So it starts
operating as soon as it is switched on.
 They have long life and high reliability.
Classification of Solids on the Basis
of their Electrical Properties
1. Metals (low resistivity or high conductivity)
  10–2 – 10–8 m
  10–2 – 10–8 Sm–1

2. Insulators (high resistivity or low conductivity)

  108 m
  10–8 Sm–1
3. Semiconductors (resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators)
  105 –100m
  10–5 –100 Sm–1
Classification of Semiconductors
Classification on the basis of their Chemical composition
1. Elemental semiconductors :
Si (Silicon) and Ge (Germanium)

2. Compound semiconductors :
(i) Inorganic : CdS (Cadmium Sulfide), GaAs (Gallium arsenide)
(ii) Organic : Polypyrrole, polythiophene, etc.
Classification of Semiconductors
Classification on the basis of the source & the nature of charge carriers
1. Intrinsic semiconductors : The pure semiconductors (impurity less than 1 part in 1010)
are called intrinsic semiconductors.

2. Extrinsic semiconductors : The semiconductors obtained by adding or doping the pure

semiconductor with small amounts of certain specific impurity atoms having valency
different from that of the host atoms.
Valence Bond for Intrinsic Semiconductors
Valence bond model of Intrinsic semiconductor : The vacancy of an electron with an
effective positive electronic charge is called a hole.

ne = Ce –Eg/2kT
ne = nh = ni

ne = no. of free electrons

nh = no. of holes electrons
ni = no. of intrinsic charge carriers
Valence Bond for Intrinsic Semiconductors
Holes as positive Charge Carriers :
The total current is I = Electron current + hole current = le + Ih.
Energy Bands in Solids
(i) If the interatomic spacing of the Si atoms is
very large (i.e. r = d >> a)
there is no interatomic interaction. Each atom
in the crystal behaves as a free atom.

Silicon (Z = 14) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

In the silicon crystal, there are 2N electrons

completely filling 2 N possible 3s levels, all of
which are of the same energy. There are 6 N
possible 3p levels, out of which only 2N levels
are filled and all the filled 3p levels have the
same energy.
Energy Bands in Solids
(ii) When the interatomic spacing r is less than d but greater than c (i.e. c < r < d) there is no
visible splitting of energy levels.
Energy Bands in Solids
(iii) When the interatomic spacing r is equal to
c (r = c) the interaction between outermost
shell electrons (3s2 and 3p2) of neighbouring
silicon atoms becomes appreciable. As a result,
the energy of electrons corresponding to 3s and
3p levels of each atom starts changing i.e., the
splitting of these energy levels commences,
whereas there is no change in the energy
levels of electrons in the inner shells.
Energy Bands in Solids
(iv) When the interatomic spacing r lies in between b and
c (i.e. b < r < c) the energy of electrons corresponding to
3s and 3p levels of each atom gets slightly changed.
Instead fo a signle 3s or 3p level, we get a large number of
closely packed levels (2N levels corresponding to a single
3s level and 6 N levels for a single 3p level of an isolated
atom)

This spreading of energy corresponding to 3s and 3p

levels reduces the energy gap that existed between 3s and
3p levels of free atom.

This collection of closely spaced levels is called an energy

band.
Energy Bands in Solids
(v) When the interatomic spacing r becomes
equal b but greater than a (i.e. r = b > a) the
energy gap between 3s and 3p levels
completely disappears and the 8N energy levels
are continuously distributed.

Now, it is not possible to distinguish between

the electrons belonging to 3s and 3p subshells.
We can only say that 4N levels are filled and 4N
levels are empty.
Energy Bands in Solids
(vi) When the interatomic spacing r becomes
equal to a (i.e. r = a, the actual spacing in the
crystal) at absolute zero, the band of 4N filled
energy levels is separated from the band of 4N
unfilled energy levels by an energy gap called
energy band gap. Which is denoted by Eg.

The lower completely filled band is called valence

band (V.B) and the upper unfilled band is called
conduction band (C.B.)
Energy Bands in Solids
(vi) When the interatomic spacing r becomes equal to (i.e. r = a, the actual spacing in the
crystal)

The positions of energy brands in a semiconductor at 0K are shown in Fig.

The lowest energy level in the conduction band is shown as Ec and highest energy level in
the valence band is shown as Ev. The separation between top of valence band and bottom of
conduction band is called energy band gap (Energy gap Eg)
Difference between Valence band,
Conduction Band & Energy Bands
1. Valence Band. In the energy band diagram of semiconductors, the valence band is a
lower badn belonging to valence electrons of the given crystal. This band may be partially or
completely filled with electrons. This band is never empty. In this band electrons are nto
capable of gaining energy from external electric field. Therefore, the electrons in this band
do nto contribute to the electric current.

2. Conduction Band. In the energy band diagram of semiconductors, the conduction band
is an upper band in which the electrons are not present at 0K. At room temperature, this
band is either empty or partially filled with electrons. In this band, electrons can gain energy
from external electric field and contribute to the electric current.
Difference between Valence band,
Conduction Band & Energy Bands
3. Energy band gap (i.e. energy gap). In the energy band diagram, energy band gap is the
separation between highest energy level of valence band and lowest energy level in
conduction band. Electrons are not found in this band. This hand is completely empty. The
minimum energy required for shifting electrons from valence band to conduction band is
called energy band gap (Eg)
Distinction between Conductors,
Semiconductors & insulators on the
basis of their Energy Bands
Important point
Fermi energy is the maximum possible energy possessed by free electrons of a material at
absolute zero temperature (i.e. O K). The value of fermi energy for different materials is
different.

Fermi level in semiconductor : It is that energy level in energy level in energy-band-

diagram of semiconductor for which the probability of occupancy (i.e., the presence of main
current carriers electrons or holes) becomes half.

For the discussion here the fermi level may be defined as that energy level in energybrand
diagram of semiconductor which corresponds to the centre of gravity of conduction
electrons and holes weighted according to their energies.
Distinction between Metals, Insulators &
Semiconductors on the basis of Band Theory
Metals
The energy band diagram for a metal is such that either the
conduction band is partially filled with electrons. Fig(i) or
the conduction and valence band partly overlap each other
and there is no forbidden energy band gap in between. Fig.
(ii). In both the situations, it can be considered that the
metal has a single energy band which is partly filled
and partly empty. Many electrons from below the Fermi
level, by acquiring a little more energy from any source,
can shift to the higher energy levels above the Fermi level
in the conduction band and behave as free electrons. In this
situation, large number of electrons are available for
electrical conduction.
Distinction between Metals, Insulators &
Semiconductors on the basis of Band Theory
INSULATORS
The energy band diagram of insulator is shown in
Fig. Here, the valence band is completely filled, the
conduction band is empty and energy gap is quite
large (Eq > 3 eV).

For example, in case of diamond, the energy gap is of

6 eV. Due to large energy gap, no electron is able to
go from the valence band to the conduction band
even if electric field is applied. Hence electrical
conduction in these materials is impossible and they
behave as insulators.
Distinction between Metals, Insulators &
Semiconductors on the basis of Band Theory
SEMICONDUCTORS
The energy band diagram of a semiconductor is shown in
Fig. Here also, the valence band is totally filled and the
conduction band is empty but the energy gap between
conduction band and valence band is quite small. It is less
than 3 eV.

For example, the energy gap for germanium is of 0.72 eV &

for silicon it is of 1.1 eV. At zero kelvin temperature,
electrons are not able to cross even this small energy gap
and hence the conduction band remains totally empty.
Therefore, the semiconductor at zero kelvin behaves
as insulator.
Distinction between Metals, Insulators &
Semiconductors on the basis of Band Theory
SEMICONDUCTORS

However at room temperature, some electrons in

the valence band acquire thermal energy greater
than energy band gap less than 3 eV and jump over
to the conduction band where they are free to move
under the influence of even a small electric field. As a
result of it, the semiconductor acquires small
conductivity at room temperature. The resistance
of semiconductor would not be as high as that of
insulator.
Intrinsic Semi-Conductors on
Energy Band Theory
At temperature O K, for Ge-structure, the valence
band is all full. The energy gap is 0.72 eV and the
conduction band is totally empty. Fig. Since no electron
is available for conduction therefore, the Ge-crystal at
O K acts as electrical insulator. The conduction is
possible if some of the electrons break away from their
covalent bonds and become free. The minimum energy
required to break a covalent bond is 0.72 eV for Ge and
1.1 eV for Si.
Intrinsic Semi-Conductors on
Energy Band Theory
Even at room temperature, the thermal vibrations
of the atoms provide energy to the electrons in
valence band to enable some electrons to cross the
energy gap and enter into the conduction band as
free electrons, accounting for some electrical
conductivity of the semiconductor. Higher is the
temperature, larger will be the number of electrosn
crossing over to the conduction band, leaving
behind equal number of holes in the valence band.
In intrinsic semiconductor at room temperature,
fermi level is about half way in the energy gap.
Intrinsic Semi-Conductors on
Band Theory
When an electron breaks away from a covalent bond, the empty place or vacancy left in the bond
is called a hole, shown by a hollow circle in the Fig. When an external electric field is applied,
these free electrons and holes move in opposite directions and constitute a current flow through
the germanium crystal.

The number of free electrons (in conduction band) and holes (in valence band) are exactly equal
inan intrinsic semiconductor.

Thus in intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh = ni

where ne = nh are number density of electrons in conduction band and number density of holes
in valence band, ni is the number density of intrinsic carriers (electrons or holes) in a pure
semiconductor.

It is very difficult to make an intrinsic semiconductor because of the difficulty in preparing

extremely pure material.
Formation of Holes in Semi-Conductors
This can be understood in two ways.
(i) From the energy band diagram of the
semiconductor.
In the energy band diagram of the semiconductor,
there is an energy gap of about 1 eV between the
valence band and the conduction band. At zero
kelvin, the semiconductor behaves as an insulator, as
no electron from the valence band can cross this
energy gap and go to the condution band. But at
higher temperature, some of the electrons gain
energy due to thermal agitation and move from the
valence band to the conduction band. As a result of
it, a vacancy is created in the valence band at a place
where the electron was present before moving to
the conduction band.
Formation of Holes in Semi-Conductors
This vacancy is called a hole. Since the absence of a negatively charged electron is equivalent
to the presence of an equivalent amount of positive charge, therefore a hole is considered as
a seat of positive charge, having charge equal to that of an electron.
Formation of Holes in Semi-Conductors
The hole is considered as an active particle in the valence band as an electron is in the
valence band as an electron is in the conduction band. The motion of the electrons in the
conduction band and also the motion of holes in the valence band are responsible for the
electrical conduction in semiconductors.
Formation of Holes in Semi-Conductors
(ii) From the valence bond study of the semiconductor.
Consider a semiconductor crystal of silicon or germanium.
We know that the Si or Ge have four valence electrons. The
crystal structure of Ge in two dimensions has been shown
in Fig. Every atom of Ge tends to share one of its four
valence electrons with each of its foru nearest
neighbouring atoms, and also to take share of one electron
from each such neighbor. This pair of shared electrons of
two atoms of Ge is said to form a covalent bond or simply
a valence bond. Thus, four valence electrons of a Ge atom
form four covalent bonds by sharing the electrons of
neighbouring four Ge atoms. Due to it, the Ge atoms in the
structure are strongly held by covalent bonds not in a
plane as it may appear here but in space of tetrahedral
angles.
Formation of Holes in Semi-Conductors
At low temperature, in a Ger crystal structure the two shared electrons in a covalent bond
can be assumed to shuttle back-and-forth between the associated atoms, holding them
together strongly.

When the temperature of Ge is raised, the thermal energy ionizes only a few atoms in the
crystalline lattice. Due to it, few valence electrons contributing to covalent bonds break and
become free to move in whole of the crystal lattice. While coming out of a covalent bond, the
electron leaves an empty space which is having positive charge equal to that of the electron
which is shown in Fig. as an open circle. It is called a hole. An electron from a neighbouring
atom can break away and can be attracted by the missing electron (or hole), thus completing
the covalent bond there and creating a hole at another place. In our two dimensional
example, we see that an electron from any of four neighbouring atoms can come to complete
the bodn and hole can move to any of these atoms. It is to be noted that breakage of each
covalent bond produces one free electron and one hole in a crystalline lattice.
Formation of Holes in Semi-Conductors
Holes
The vacancy or absence of an electron in the bond of a covalently bonded crystal is called a
hole.
A hole is not a physical entity. A hole is a convenient way of describing charge motion,
though the motion can be described entirely in terms of electrons.
Holes
Characteristics of holes :
A hole is just a vacancy created by removal of an electron from a covalent bond of
semiconductor.
It has the same mass as the removed electron.
It is associated with the positive charge of magnitude e
The energy of hole is higher, the farther below it is from the top of the valence band.
Electrical Conduction in Semi-conductors
The electrical conduction in semiconductors is caused by the motion of the electronsin the
conduction band and also by the motion of the holes in the valence band.

When an electric field is applied across a semiconductor, the electrons in the conduction
band travel in opposite direction to that of the applied electric field and constitute a flow of
electronic current (Ie). At the same time, the holes in the valence band travel in the direction
of the applied electric field and constitute a hole current (Ih). It means there are two streams
of current inside a semiconductor; namely the electronic current in the conduction band
and the hole current in the valence band. The effective current (I) in the semiconductor is
the sum of these two streams of current.
i.e. I = Ie + Ih
For a pure semiconductor at room temperature, the current strength is weak.
Intrinsic Semi-Conductors
Important points (Intrinsic Semi-Conductors)
1. In an intrinsic semiconductor
(i) There are two types of current carriers (i.e. free electrons and holes)
(ii) Number of electrons is equal to number of holes.

2. An intrinsic semiconductor is electrical neutral as a whole.

3. In a semiconductor the total current is due to the movement of both the free electrons
and holes, whereas in a metal conductor the current is due to flow of electrons only.
Limitations of Intrinsic (pure) Semi-
Conductors based devices
Limitations of developing pure semiconductor based devices
1. Intrinsic semiconductors hae low intrinsic charge carrier concentration (of hole and
electrons) as 106 m–3. So they have low electrical conductivity.

2. As intrinsic charge carriers are always thermally generated, so flexibility is not available
to control their number.

3. For intrinsic semiconductors, ne = nh. They cannot have predominant hole or electron
conduction. This puts a limit to the usefulness of such materials.
Doping
Doping is a process of deliberate addition of a desirable impurity atoms to a pure
semiconductor to modify its properties in a controlled manner. The impurity atoms added
are called dopants.

The impurity added may be  1 part per million (ppm). In a doping process, it is required
that
(i) The dopant atom should take the position of semiconductor atom in the lattice.
(ii) The presence of the dopant atom should not distort the crystal lattice.
(iii) The size of the dopant atom should be almost the same as that of the crystal atom.
(iv) The concentration of dopant atoms should not be larger (not more than 1% of the
crystal atoms).

It si to be noted that the doping of a semiconductor increases its electrical conductivity.

Methods of Doping
Doping is achieved in many ways
1. Add the impurity atoms in the melt of the semiconductor.
2. Heat the crystalline semiconductor in an atmosphere containing dopant atoms or
molecules so that the latter diffuse into the semiconductor.
3. Implant dopant atoms or molecules by bombarding the semiconductor with them.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors
A doped semiconductor or a semi-conductor with suitable impurity atom added to it, is
called extrinsic semiconductor.

Extrinsic semi conductors are of two types :

(i) n – type semiconductors (ii) p-type semiconductors
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors
(i) n-type semiconductor. (Valence Bond explanation)
When a pure semiconductor of silicon (Si) or germanium
(Ge) in which each Si or Ge atom has four valence
electrons, is doped with a controlled amount of
pentavalent atoms, say arsenic or phosphorous or
antimony or bismuth, which have five valence electrons,
the impurity atom will replace the Si or Ge atom as
shown in Fig. The four of the five valence electrons of the
impurity atoms will form covalent bonds by sharing the
electrons with the adjoining four atoms of silicon, while
the fifth electron is very loosely bound with the parent
impurity atom and is comparatively free to move. Thus,
each impurity atom added donates one free electron to
the crystal structure. These impurity atoms which donate
free electrons for conduction are called donor atoms.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (n-type Valence Band explanation)
Since the conduction of electricity is due to the motion of
electrons i.e. negative charges or n-type carriers,
therefore, the resulting semiconductor is called donor-
type or n-type semiconductor.

On giving up their fifth electron, the donor atoms become

positively charged. However, the matter remains
electrically neutral as a whole. The extra electron of the
donor atom orbits around the donor nucleus, in a
hydrogen like manner.

It has been found that 0.045 eV energy is required to

remove this electron from the impurity atom of silicon
semiconductor and make it a free electron.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (n-type Valence Band explanation)

At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds may

get ruptured, producing thereby free electrons and an
equal number of holes in the ntype semiconductor. But
overall, the total number of holes in n-type
semiconductor is relatively small than the electrons.

Hence in n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority

carriers and holes are minority carriers.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (n-type Energy Band explanation)

Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor is shown

in Fig. For a silicon semiconductor with impurity atoms
of arsenic or phosphorous, the energies of the free
electrons are slightly less than the energies of the free
electrons in the lowest energy level of conduction band.
As a result of it, these electrons occupy discrete energy
levels (called donor energy levels) between the valence
band and conduction band and the lowest donor electron
energy level lies at 0.01 eV for Ge and 0.045 eV for Si
below the bottom of the conduction band, When we add
pentavalent impurity in a pure semiconductor of Ge or Si,
the Fermi level in energy gap shifts very close to
conduction band. If doping is very large, the Fermi level
may move into the conduction band.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (n-type Energy Band explanation)

It is to be noted that this energy is comparable to

the thermal energy of electron at room temperature
(= 0.03 eV),

Thus, a very small energy supplied can excite the

electrons from donor levels to conduction band. Due to it,
the conductivity of semiconductor is remarkably
improved.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors
(ii) p-type semiconductor. (Valence Bond explanation)

When a pure semiconductor of Germanium (Ge) or

Silicon (Si), in which each atom has four valence
electrons is doped with a controlled amount of trivalent
atoms say gallium, or Indium (In) or Boron (B) or
Aluminium (Al) which have three valence electrons, the
impurity atom will replace the Ge or Si atom as shown in
Fig. The three valence electrons of the impurity atom will
form covalent bonds by sharing the electrons of the
adjoining three atoms of Ge, while there will be one
incomplete covalent bond with a neighbouring Ge-atom,
due to the deficiency of an electron. This deficiency is
completed by taking an electron from one of the Ge-Ge
bonds, thus completing the In-Ge bond. This makes
Indium ionised (negatively charged) and creates a ‘hole'.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (p-type Valence Band explanation)
An electron-moving from a Ge-Ge bond to fill a hole,
leaves a hole behind. That is how, holes move in the
semi-conductor structure.

The trivalent atoms are called acceptor atoms and the

conduction of electricity occurs due to motion of holes,
i.e., positive charges or p-type carriers. That is why the
resulting semiconductor is called acceptor type or p-type
semiconductor. Also, at ordinary temperature, some of
the covalent bonds may get ruptured, releasing equal
number of holes and electrons. Therefore, the total
number of electrons is relatively small as compared to
the number of the holes in the p-type semiconductor.

Hence in the p-type semiconductor, electrons are

minority carriers and holes are majority carriers.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (p-type Energy Band explanation)

Energy band diagram of p – type Semiconductor is shown

in Fig. For a Ge or Si semiconductor, the doping of
impurity atoms of Indium or boron having valence three,
produce some allowed energy levels which are situated
in the energy gap slightly above the valence band. These
levels are called acceptor energy levels. When we add a
trivalent impurity in a pure semiconductor of Ge or Si,
the Fermi level in energy gap shifts very close to valence
band. If doping is very large, the Fermi level may move
into the valence band.
Extrinsic Semi-Conductors (p-type Energy Band explanation)

At room temperature, due to thermal energy, the

electrons from the valence band are easily transferred to
the acceptor level (Since the effective gap is reduced to
about 0.045 ev for Si & 0.01 ev for Ge) until these levels
are filled. This produces a large number of holes in the
valence band and thereby the valence band becomes a
hole conducting band.

When an external electric field is applied to a p-type

semiconductor, these holes will act as carriers of current.
Due to it, the p-type semiconductor shows its electrical
conductivity much improved than what it was for pure
semiconductor.
Points to be Noted
Points to be Noted

2. In n-type semiconductor, the number density of electrons is nearly equal to the

number density of donor Atoms Nd and is very large as compared to number
density of holes. Hence ne Ne  Nd >> Nh

3. In p-type semiconductor, the number density of holes is nearly equal to the

number density of acceptor atoms Na and is very large as compared to number
density of electrons. Hence Nh  Na >> Ne

4. The number density of intrisnic current carrier (ni) of a semiconductor varies

with temperature T K according to relation ni = n0e–Eg/(2KT) where n0 is a constant, k
is the Boltzmann constant and Eg is the energy gap of the given semiconductor.
Points to be Noted

5. Both n-type and p–type semiconductors are neutral.

6. The fermilevel in n-type semiconductor lies in the forbidden energy gap near the
conduction band.

7. The fermilevel in p–type semiconductor lies in the forbidden energy gap near the
valence band.
Difference between Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
1. These are pure semiconducting These are semiconducting tetravalent
tetravalent crystals. crystals doped with impurity atoms of
group III or V
2. Their electrical conductivity is low Their electrical conductivity is high
3. There is no permitted energy state in There is permitted energy state of the
between valance and conduction bands. impurity atom between valance and
conduction bands.
4. The number of free electrons in the The electrons are majority charge
conduction band is equal to the number carriers in n-type while holes are
of holes in valance band. majority charge carriers in p-type.
5. Their electrical conductivity depends on Their electrical conductivity depends
temperature. on temperature as well as on dopant
concentration.
Difference Between n-Type & p-Type Semiconductors
n-Type SEMICONDUCTORS p-Type SEMICONDUCTORS
1. These are extrinsic semiconductors These are extrinsic semiconductors
obtained by doping impurity atoms of obtained by doping impurity atoms of
group V to Ge or Si crystal. group III to Ge or Si crystal.
2. The impurity atoms added provide free The impurity atoms added create
electrons and are called donors. vacancies of electrons (or holes) and
are called acceptors.
3. The donor impurity level lies just below The acceptor impurity level lies just
the conduction band. above the valance band.
4. The electrons are majority charge The holes are majority charge carriers
carriers while holes are minority charge while electrons are minority charge
carriers. carriers.
5. ne >> nh or n >> p ne << nh or n << p
p-n Junction

It is a single crystal of Ge or Si doped in such a

manner that one half portion of it acts as p-type
semiconductor and other half as n-type
semiconductor.

The term junction implies the boundary or

region of transition between n-type and p-type
semiconductor materials.

The two separate semiconductors cannot have

a continuous contact at the atomic level.

A p-n junction is the key, to all semiconductor

devices. Example p-n junction used as a
rectifying diode.
p-n Junction (Deplection region & Potential barrier)

ATwo important processes involved during

formation of p-n junction are diffusion & drift.

The small region in the vicinity of the junction

which is depleted of free charge carriers and
has only immobile ions is called depletion
region.

The accumulation of negative charges in the

p-region and positive charges in the n -region
sets up a potential difference across the
junction. This acts as a barrier and is called
barrier potential(VB).
p-n Junction

This diffusion of majority charge carriers

across the junction gives rise to an electric
current from p →n side and is called diffusion
current.

The current set up by the barrier field from

n → p side is called drift current.

Circuit Symbol for a p - n Junction

p-n Junction (deplection Layer & barrier potential)

The barrier potential VB, depends on

(i) the nature of the semiconductor
(ii) temperature
(iii)amount of doping

At room temp (300K) The value of VB is 0.3 V

for Ge & 0.7 V for Si

If doping concentration is small depletion layer

width large & EB (barrier field) weak

If doping concentration is large depletion layer

width small & EB (barrier field) strong
E =V/l
Working of a p-n Junction

Forward Biasing: If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-side and
the negative terminal to the n-side, then the p-n junction is said to be forward biased.
Forward biasing of a p-n Junction

As shown in Fig., here the applied voltage V opposes the

barrier voltage VB. As a result of this

1. The effective barrier potential decreases to (VB – V) and

hence the energy barrier across the junction decreases.
2. The majority charge carries i.e., holes from p-side and
electrons from n-side begin to flow towards the junction.
3. The diffusion of holes and electrons into the depletion
layer decreases its width, and
4. The effective resistance across the p – n junction decreases.

When V exceeds VB, the majority charge carriers start flowing

easily across the junction & set up large current (in mA), called
forward current.
Working of a p-n Junction

Reverse Biasing: If the positive terminal of a

battery is connected to the n-side and the
negative terminal to the p-side, then the p-n
junction is said to be reverse biased.
Reverse biasing of a p-n Junction

As shown in Fig., here the applied voltage V

and the barrier voltage VB are in the same
direction. As a result of this
1. The barrier potential increases to (VB + V)
and hence the energy barrier across the
junction increases.
2. The majority charge carries move away
from the junction, increasing the width of
the depletion layer,
3. The resistance of the p-n junction
becomes very large, and
4. No current flows across the junction due
to majority charge carriers.
Reverse biasing of a p-n Junction

However at room temp. there are always some

minority charges carriers which will be
pushed by reverse biasing towards the
junction & setting a reverse or leakage
current.

Minority charge carrier current will be very

small & of the order of A
V - I Characteristic of a p - n Junction Diode

These are the graphical relations between voltage applied to p-n junction and the
current through the p-n junction (both when it is forward and reverse biased) is called
the voltage-current or V - I characteristics of a p-n junction.
V - I Characteristic of a p - n Junction Diode

Forward Bias Characteristic

These are the graphical relations between forward bias

voltage applied to p-n junction and the forward current
through the p-n junction.
V - I Characteristic of a p - n Junction Diode

Forward Bias Characteristic

Important Features of graph:

1. The V-I graph is not a straight line (does not obey

Ohm's law)
2. Initially current increases very slowly, till the voltage
crosses a certain value, called thresholdvoltage/cut-in
voltage or knee voltage. (ex. 0.3 V for Ge diode & 0.7 V
for Si diode),
3. After the cut-in voltage, diode current increase rapidly
(exponentially). Here majority charge carriers feel
negligible resistance at the junction.
V - I Characteristic of a p - n Junction Diode

Reverse Bias Characteristic

These are the graphical relations between

the reverse bias voltage applied to the p-n
Junction and the reverse current across the
p-n Junction
V - I Characteristic of a p - n Junction Diode

Reverse Bias Characteristic

Important Features of graph:

1. Reverse bias voltage produces a very small
current few A which almost remains
constant with bias. This small current is
called reverse saturation current. It is due to
drift of minority charge carriers.
2. When reverse voltage reaches sufficiently
high value, the reverse current suddenly
increases to a large value. This voltage is
called Zener breakdown voltage of the diode.
( this property is used to convert a.c. to d.c.,
called rectification)
V - I Characteristic of a p - n Junction Diode
Dynamic Resistance of a Junction Diode
Q
Find the value of current through the resistor R of the circuits (i) and (ii)
when similar diodes D1 and D2 are connected as shown in figure.

SOLUTION
Q
Assuming that the two diodes D1 and D2 used in the electric circuit
shown in the figure are ideal, find out the value of the current flowing
through 2.5 Ω resistor.

SOLUTION
Q
If each diode in fig has a forward bias resistance of 25  and infinite
resistance in reverse bias, what will be the values of current I1, I2, I3 and
I4?

SOLUTION
Junction Diode as a Rectifier

Rectifier: Rectifier is a device which is used for converting alternating

current/voltage into direct current/voltage.
Junction Diode as a Rectifier

Principle: When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, it offers less resistance and a
current flows through it; but when it is reverse biased, it offers high resistance and
almost no current flows through it. This unidirectional property of a diode enables it
to be used as a rectifier.

The p – n junctions can be used as

A half-wave rectifier
A full-wave rectifier
Junction Diode as a Half Wave Rectifier

Half Wave rectifier

Junction Diode as a Full Wave Rectifier

Full Wave rectifier

Filter Circuits
Q
In half wave rectification, what is the output frequency if input
frequency is 50 Hz.

SOLUTION
Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes

1. Photodiode
2. LED (Light emitting diodes)
3. Solar Cells
Photodiodes

Photodiode is a p-n junction diode which is an

optoelectronic device in which current carriers are
generated by photons through photo excitation, i.e.,
photoconduction by light.

A photodiode is preferably operated in reverse bias

Photodiodes

A photodiode is a p-n junction fabricated from a

photosensitive semiconductor and provided with a
transparent windows so as allow light to fall on its
junction.

USES OF PHOTODIODES
In detection of optical signals
In demodulation of optical signals
In light-operated switches
In speed reading of computer punched cards
In electronic counters

A photodiode is preferably operated in reverse bias

Photodiodes

A photodiode is preferably operated in reverse bias

Reason:
The photodiodes are used in reverse bias condition
because the change in reverse current through the
photodiode due to change in light intensity can be
measured easily as the reverse saturation current is
directly proportional to the light intensity. But it is not
so when photodiode is forward biased.
Photodiodes
Q
Three photo diodes D1, D2 and D3 are made of semiconductors having
band gaps of 2.5 eV, 2 eV and 3 eV, respectively. Which ones will be able
to detect light of wavelength 6000 Å?

SOLUTION
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Light emitting diode is a photoelectronic device which

converts electrical energy into light energy, under
forward bias condition,

It is a heavily-doped forward biased p-n junction which

spontaneously converts the biasing electrical energy
into optical energy, like infrared and visible light.

A p-n junction made from a translucent semiconductor

like gallium arsenide or indium phosphide is provided
with metallised contacts.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Two important features of LEDs

1. The color of light emitted by an LED depends on its

band-gap energy.

2. The intensity of light emitted is determined by the

forward current conducted by the p - njunction.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Advantages of LEDs over conventional incandescent lamps:

 Low operational voltage and less power consumption.
 Fast action and no warm up time required.
 The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500 Å (i.e. light
is
 nearly monochromatic)
 Long life and ruggedness
 Fast ON/OFF switching capability
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Uses of LEDs
 Infrared LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems.
 In optical communication.
 In image scanning circuits for picture phones
 LEDs are used as indicator lamps in radio receivers and
other electronic equipment.
 Hand calculators, cash registers, digital clocks etc., use
seven segment red or green displays.
Solar Cell

It is a junction diode which converts solar

energy into electricity and is based on
photovoltaic effect (generation of voltage due
to bombardment of light photons)

A solar cell consists of a p-n junction made

from silicon or gallium-arsenide (GaAs). A
thin layer of n-Si is grown on one side of a p-
Si wafer by diffusion process. On the top of n-
Si layer, a metal finger electrode is deposited.
The bottom of the p-Si layer is metallic back
contact.
Solar Cell Working

When a solar cell is illuminated with light photons of

energy hv > Eg electron-hole pairs are generated in
the depletion layer (or near the junction). The
electrons and holes produced move in opposite
directions due to junction field.

The photo generated electrons move towards n-side of

p-n junction. The photo generated holes move
towards p-side of p-n junction. They will be collected
at the two sides of the junction, giving rise to a photo
voltage between the top and bottom metal electrodes.
Solar Cell, I-V Characteristic

The I-V characteristics of a solar cell is shown in Fig. ,

which is lying in fourth quadrant of the coordinate
axes. It is so because solar cell does not draw current
but supplies the same to the load. In graph point A
represents open circuit voltage and point B represents
short circuit current
Solar Cell

Advantages of solar cell are

a. Pollution free
b. Long lasting
c. Maintenance free
d. Uses of solar cells:
e. To charge solar batteries in day time and use them in night
f. In light meters in photography
g. Wrist watches and hand calculators
h. Spacecraft use arrays of solar cells or solar panels to
provide electrical energy.
Summary
 Semiconductors are the basic materials used in the present solid state electronic
devices like diode, transistor, ICs, etc.

 Lattice structure and the atomic structure of constituent elements decide

whether a particular material will be insulator, metal or semiconductor.

 Metals have low resistivity (10–2 to 10–8 Ωm), insulators have very high
resistivity (>108 Ωm–1), while semiconductors have intermediate values of
resistivity.

 Semiconductors are elemental (Si, Ge) as well as compound (GaAs, CdS, etc.).
 Pure semiconductors are called ‘intrinsic semiconductors’. The presence of
charge carriers (electrons and holes) is an ‘intrinsic’ property of the material
and these are obtained as a result of thermal excitation. The number of electrons
(ne) is equal to the number of holes (nh) in intrinsic conductors. Holes are
essentially electron vacancies with an effective positive charge.

 The number of charge carriers can be changed by ‘doping’ of a suitable impurity

in pure semiconductors. Such semiconductors are known as extrinsic
semiconductors. These are of two types (n-type and p-type).

 In n-type semiconductors, ne >> nh while in p-type semiconductors nh >> ne.

 Diodes can be used for rectifying an ac voltage (restricting the ac voltage to one
direction). With the help of a capacitor or a suitable filter, a dc voltage can be
obtained.

 There are some special purpose diodes.

 Zener diode is one such special purpose diode. In reverse bias, after a certain
voltage, the current suddenly increases (breakdown voltage) in a Zener diode.
This property has been used to obtain voltage regulation.

 p-n junctions have also been used to obtain many photonic or optoelectronic
devices where one of the participating entity is ‘photon’: (a) Photodiodes in
which photon excitation results in a change of reverse saturation current which
helps us to measure light intensity; (b) Solar cells which convert photon energy
into electricity; (c) Light Emitting Diode and Diode Laser in which electron
excitation by a bias voltage results in the generation of light.
 There are some special circuits which handle the digital data consisting of 0 and
1 levels. This forms the subject of Digital Electronics.

 The important digital circuits performing special logic operations are called
logic gates. These are: OR, AND, NOT, NAND, and NOR gates.

 In modern day circuit, many logical gates or circuits are integrated in one single
‘Chip’. These are known as Intgrated circuits (IC).
Points to Ponder
5. In an oscillator, the feedback is in the same phase (positive feedback). If the
feedback voltage is in opposite phase (negative feedback), the gain is less than 1
and it can never work as oscillator. It will be an amplifier with reduced gain.
However, the negative feedback also reduces noise and distortion in an amplifier
which is an advantageous feature.
ALL THE BEST