UNIT – II

PART – A
SEMICONDUCTING MATERIALS

1. Mention the properties of Semiconductors.

1. Semiconductors are covalent bonded solids.
2. They have empty conduction band at 0K.
3. They have almost filled valence band at 0K.
4. They have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.

2. What are elemental and compound semiconductors? Give its uses with examples.

Elemental semiconductor: They are made from single element of the fourth group elementsof
the periodic table. They are used for the manufacture of diodes and transistors. Examples:
Silicon and Germanium.

Compound semiconductor : They are formed by combining third and fifth group elements inthe
periodic table. They are used for making LED’s and Laser diodes, IC’s etc. Examples:
GaAs, ZnO

3. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic Semiconductors.

Intrinsic Semiconductors:
 They are pure form of semiconductors (without any impurities).
 Number of electrons and holes are equal.
 Conductivity is poor.

Extrinsic Semiconductors:
 A semiconducting material in which impurity atoms added to the material to modify
its conductivity.
 Number of electrons and holes are not equal because of doping.
 Conductivity is improved.

4. What is meant by doping and doping agent? Give an example.

The technique of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and the added
impurity is called doping agent. Example, for N-type semiconductor P (Phosporus) is a doping
element, whereas B (Boron) is also a doping element for P-type semiconductor.

5. Define mobility and Carrier concentration.

Mobility: The magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field is defined as mobilityUnit:
m2vs-1.
The carrier concentration is defined as the number of charge carriers per unit volume within the
available energy band.

6. What happens when the temperature increases in the case of semiconductor and
conductor?
At 0K semiconductors behave as insulators. When the temperature is raised or when impurities
are added, their conductivity increases. i.e. ρ α 1/T.
In conductors ρ α T. Therefore when temperature increases, the resistivity also increases and
hence the conductivity decreases.
7. Explain the concept of Hole.
In intrinsic semiconductors charge carriers are created by breaking of covalent bonds. When
covalent bond is broken, an electron escapes to the conduction band leaving an empty space
in valence band. This missing electron is called as hole. (vacant space of electron)

8. Mention Fermi level position in intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors at 0K.

Fermi level is located between halfway between VB and CB in an intrinsic semiconductor at
0K
EF = (EC +Ev )/2
In N-type semiconductors at 0K, Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of donor level (Ed )and
bottom of conduction band (Ec). EF = (EC +Ed )/2. In P-type semiconductors at 0K, Fermi level
lies exactly at the middle of acceptor level (Ea )and top of valence band (Ev). EF = (Ev +Ed )/2

9. What is Fermi level in a semiconductor?

Fermi level in a semiconductor is the energy level situated in the band gap of semiconductor. It
is exactly located at the middle of the band gap in the case of an intrinsic semiconductor at T =
0K. For N-type it lies between Ec and Ed at T=0K. For P-type it lies between Ev and Ea at
T=0K.

10. What is meant by acceptor and donor energy level?

A trivalent impurity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor accepts one electron which
produces an energy level called acceptor energy level.
A pentavalent impuity when doped with an intrinsic semiconductor donates one electron which
produces an energy level called donor energy level.

11. What are direct and indirect semiconductors?

Direct semiconductor Indirect semiconductor

The energy maximum of the valance band and
the energy minimum of the conduction band
are having same momentum value.
During the recombination of electron from
conduction band with hole in valence band,
the momentum of the electron remains vitually
constant.
The maximum energy of valence band and
minimum energy of conduction band are
having the different values of momentum.
During recombination, electron firstly loses
momentum such that it has momentum equal
to the momentum corresponding to energy
maximum of valance band.
12. What is compound semiconductor? Mention the uses of compound semiconductor.
Semiconductor which are formed by combining third and fifth group or second and sixth group
elements in the periodic table are known as compound semiconductors. They are used as
photovoltaic materials, photoconductive cell, laser materials and for making LED (Light
Emitting Diode).

13. Write an expression for the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an
intrinsic semiconductor.

The concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

n = 2 (2 π me* k T / h2)3/2 exp(EF – EC)/k T

where me* - effective mass of electron, EF - Fermi energy level, EC –energy corresponds to the
bottom of conduction band and T – absolute temperature.

14. Write an expression for the concentration of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic
semiconductor.
The concentration of holes in the valance band is given by

p = 2 (2 π mh* k T / h2)3/2 exp(Ev – EF)/k T

where mh* - effective mass of hole, EF - Fermi energy level, Ev –energy corresponds to the topof
valance band and T – absolute temperature.

15. Show the variation of Fermi level with temperature in the case of n-type semiconductor for
high and low doping levels.
The variation of Fermi-level with temperature for a n-type semiconductor for high and low
doping levels is shown in fig

16. Why do we prefer silicon for transistors and GaAs for laser diodes?
Silicon is an indirect band gap semiconductor for whch the life time of the charge carriers is
more and the current amplification is also very high, hence it is prefereable for using it in
transistors.
GaAs is a direct band gap semiconductor, in which electrons and holes recombines directly to
produce photons and hence used in laser diodes.
17. Define Hall effect?
If a semiconductor or a conductor carrying current (I) is placed in a magnetic field (B), an
 electric field is produced in the direction normal to both the current and magnetic field. The
generated voltage is called the Hall voltage (VH) and the field is called Hall field(EH).

18. Can the Hall coefficient be zero?

The Hall coefficient is affected by the hole/electron concentration as well as carrier mobility.
The gap between the conduction and valence bands is quite large in an insulator. Because
conductivity is zero in insulators, mobility is close to zero as well. As a result, in the case of an
insulator, the Hall effect is zero.

19. What is Hall field?

Due to the Hall Effect, an electric field develops over the width of a conductor in the presence of
an external magnetic field, while an electric current flows under its influence is known as the
Hall field.

20. Mention the uses of Hall effect.

 It is used to find type of semiconductor. The Hall coefficient RH is negative for N-type
semiconductor. The Hall coefficient RH is positive for P-type semiconductor. i.e N-type:
RH = -1/ne, P-type: RH = +1/pe.
 It is used to measure carrier concentration.
 It is used to find mobility of charge carrier.
 It is used to measure the magnetic flux density using a semiconductor sample of known Hall
coefficient.