CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIAS BASED ON BAND THEORY

Based on band theory, and on the basis of the presence of forbidden band gap, the
materials are classified into three categories(i) Metals or Conductors(ii)
Semi-conductors(iii) Insulators.

CONDUCTORS

1. The valence and conduction bands are overlap with each other’s.
2. Forbidden band gap is not present.
3. The availability of free electrons will be very high.
4. Very minimal amount of energy is required for conduction to occur
5. Examples: Cu, Al, Fe, Au etc.

CONDUCTOR SEMICONDUCTOR INSULATOR

SEMICONDUCTORS

1. There will be a small gap between the valence and conduction band.
2. Order of the band gap is below 3 eV.
3. The availability of free electrons in conduction band will be less compared to
conductors.
4. Small amount of energy is required for conduction to occur
5. Example: Si, Ge, etc.

INSULATORS

1. There will be a large gap between the valence and conduction band.
2. Order of the band gap is above 3 eV.
3. The availability of free electrons in conduction band will be approximately zero.
4. Very large amount of energy is required for conduction to occur.
5. Example: Diamond, plastic, glass etc.,

DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTION BAND

Let dN be the number of electrons in the energy interval E and E+dE in the
conduction band.

dN = N(E) dE F(E) ---(1)

where N(E) dE is the density of states in the energy interval E and E+dE and F(E)
is the probability that a state of energy is occupied.

The number of electrons in conduction band can be calculated by integrating the

equation (1)

Since the semiconductor is a crystal, the electron motion is considered in the

periodic potential. So the mass ‘m’ is replaced as effective mass ‘me’. The kinetic
energy of electron is E = E-Ec.
In the above expression, E>>EF , So we can neglect ‘1’ in the denominator
DENSITY OF HOLES IN VALENCE BAND

Let dP be the number of holes in energy interval E and E+dE in the valence band.

dP = N(E) dE [1-F(E)] ----(7)

1-F(E) is the remaining probability after finding the density of electrons.

 --------(11)

INTRINSIC CARRIER CONCENTRATION

In intrinsic semiconductors, Ne = Nh = ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration

The equation (12) is called as intrinsic carrier concentration where Eg = Ec-Ev

which is the energy gap between conduction band and valence band. Therefore for
intrinsic semiconductor, even if impurity is added to increase Ne there will be
decrease in Nh and hence the product Ne Nh will remain constant. This is called law
of mass action.
FERMI LEVEL AND VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH
TEMPERATURE IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Fig – Fermi energy level lies in the midway between Ec and Ev

Therefore, the fermi level lies in the midway between conduction level Ec and
valence level Ev at T = 0K. But in general, mh* = me* so the fermi level is a function
of temperature and is raised slightly with temperature.
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDCUTOR

Impure semiconductors in which the charge carriers are produced due to impurity
atoms are called extrinsic semiconductors. They are obtained by doping an intrinsic
semiconductor with impurity atoms.

Based on the type of impurity added, they are classified into

(i) n-type semiconductor

(ii) p-type semiconductor

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

The n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with

pentavalent (5 electrons in valence band) impurity atoms like phosphorous, arsenic
, antimony, etc., The 4 valence electrons of the impurity atoms bond with 4 valence
electrons of the semiconductor atom and the remaining 1 electron of the impurity
atom is left free
 Fig. n-type semiconductor

✔ Let us consider, pentavalent impurity phosphorous is added to silicon lattice.

✔ Phosphorous atom has five valence electrons. Among these four valence
electrons form a covalent bond with the neighboring Si atom.
✔ Thus, fifth valence electron of phosphorous atom does not involve in the
formation of covalent bonds. Hence it is free to move through the
semiconductor lattice.
✔ This shows that each phosphorous atom donates one free electron.
Therefore, all the pentavalent impurities are called donors.
 ✔ The number of free electron depends on the amount of impurity
(phosphorous) added to the silicon.
✔ A majority charge carrier in n-type semiconductor is electron and holes are
the minority charge carriers.

CARRIER CONCENTRATION IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Fig. Energy level diagram of n-Type Semiconductor

Density of ionized donor atoms is ND [1-F(ED)]

We know that F(ED) =

1- F(ED) = =

Since EF-Ed>>KBT (or) Ed-EF<< KBT (or) Ed-EF / KBT << 1 or

<< 1

So, 1-F(ED) =
At T = 0K, the fermi level in n-type semicondcutor lies exactly in the middle of
conduction level (Ec) and donor level (Ed).

VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND

CONCENTRATION OF IMPURITIES IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

We know that

✔ When the temperature is increased some electrons in ED level may be

shifted to conduction band and hence some vacant sites will be created.
✔ Therefore the fermi energy level shifts down to separate the empty and
filled level.
 ✔ At higher temperature, the fermi level approaches the intrinsic
semiconductor behavior due to the breaking of covalent bond. The
doping level is Nd = 1021 atoms/m3.
✔ Further the electron concentration increases with increase of doping
concentration.

Fig. Variation of Fermi level with Temperature and Concentration of

Impurities in N-Type semiconductor

EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF ELECTRONS IN CONDUCTION BAND

IN TERMS OF ND

The density of electrons in conduction band is given by

------------(6)

Substituting eqn (4) in (6)

Here EC-ED = ΔE which is known as ionization energy of donors. ΔE
represents the amount of energy required to transfer an electron from donor
energy level to conduction band.

This shows that the electron concentration in the conduction band is proportional to
the square rroot of the donor concentration.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to an intrinsic or pure

semiconductor (Silicon or germanium), it becomes a p-type semiconductor. The
addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number of holes in semiconductor.
Such impurities are known as acceptor because holes created and it can accept
electrons.

Trivalent impurity – B, Ga, In, Al etc.

 Fig. p-type semiconductor

✔ Let us consider, trivalent impurity boron is added to silicon lattice.

✔ The three valence electrons of each boron atom form three covalent bonds
with the three neighboring silicon atoms.
✔ The fourth covalent bond is incomplete with shortage of one electron. The
missing electron is called hole.
✔ This shows that each boron atom accept one electron to fill the hole.
Therefore, all the trivalent impurities are called acceptors.
✔ A majority charge carrier in p-type semiconductor is holes and electrons are
the minority charge carriers.

Fig. Energy level diagram of p-Type Semiconductor.

F[EA] =

Since EA-EF>>KBT

>> 1

>>1

1+ =
 F[EA] =

Substitute the value of Nv

VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND
CONCENTRATION OF IMPURITIES IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Fig. Variation of Fermi level with Temperature and Concentration of Impurities in P-Type
semiconductor
 ✔ At T = 0K, the fermi level in n-type semicondcutor lies exactly in the
middle of acceptor level (Ea) and top of the valence band (Ev).
✔ When the temperatureis increased, some of the electrons in the valence
band go to acceptor energy levels by breaking up the covalent bonds
and hence the fermi level is shifted in upward direction.
✔ At higher temperature, p-type semiconductor behave as an intrinsic
semiconductor. The addition of impurity atoms increase the hole
concentration.

EXPRESSION FOR DENSITY OF HOLES IN VALENCE BAND IN TERMS OF NA

HALL EFFECT

When a current carrying conductor (metal or semiconductor) is placed

perpendicular to the magnetic field, a voltage is produced inside the conductor in a
direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This
phenomenon is known as “Hall effect” and the generated voltage is called Hall
voltage
 Fig: Hall Effect

HALL EFFECT IN N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Let us consider an n-type semiconducting material in the form of rectangular slab.

The current is applied along X-direction from left to right and the magnetic field is
applied in Z-direction, as a result Hall voltage is produced in Y-direction.

Since the direction of current flow is from left to right and the electrons move from
right to left in X-directions as shown in fig.

Fig: Hall Effect in n-type semiconductor

Now due to magnetic field applied the electron move towards downward direction
with the velocity ‘v’ and cause the negative charge to accumulate at face (1) of the
material as shown in Figure. A potential difference is established between face (1)
and (2) of the specimen which give rise to field EH in the negative y direction.

Force due to potential difference = -eEH--------------(1)

Force due to magnetic field = -B e v --------------(2)

V = Jx / ne e -----(4)

The negative sign indicates that the field is developed in the negative Y direction.

HALL EFFECT IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

Let us consider a p-type material for which the current is passed along x-direction
from left to right and magnetic field is applied along z-direction as shown in
Figure. Since the direction of current is from left to right, the holes will also move
in the same direction.

Now due to the magnetic field applied, the holes move towards the downward
direction with velocity ‘v’ and accumulate at the face (1) as shown in figure. A
potential difference is established between (1) and (2) in the positive y direction.

Force due to magnetic field = B e v -------- (7)

The above equation represents the Hall coefficient and the positive sign indictaes
that the Hall field is developed in the positive y direction.

HALL COEFFICIENT IN TERMS OF HALL VOLTAGE

Hall coefficient (RH) is defined as the hall field developed per unit current density
per unit applied magnetic field.

If the thickness of the smaple is ‘t’ and the voltage developed is ‘VH’ then Hall
voltage
EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HALL EFFECT

A semiconductor slab of thickness‘t’ and breadth ‘b’ is taken and current is passed
using the battery as shown in Figure. The slab is placed between the pole of an
electromagnet so that current direction coincides with x-axis and magnetic field
coincides with z-axis. The hall voltage (VH) is measured by placing two probes at
the center of the top and bottom faces of the slab (y-axis)

Fig. Experimental setup for Hall Effect

APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT

1. The sign (N-type or P-type) of charge carriers can be determined.

2. The carrier concentration can be determined.

3. The mobility of charge carriers is measured directly.

4. Electrical conductivity can be determined.

5. It can be used to determine whether the given material is metal, insulator or

semiconductor and the type of the semiconductor.

6. It can be used to determine the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.