PURPOSE

In recent days, Semiconductors are the

most used things which are used in
electronics, so I wanted to know its
working.

Another fact which inspired me to do

this project is that I am in touch with
qualitative analysis whose knowledge
with other factors helped me to do so.
 CONTENTS
 Introduction
 Theory and Definition
 Effect of temperature on
conductivityof Semiconductor
 Intrinsic Semiconductors
 N-type Semiconductor
 P-type Semiconductor
 Electrical Resistivity of
Semiconductors
 INTRODUCTION
Most of the solids can be placed in
one of the two classes: Metals and
insulators. Metals are those through
which electric charge can easily
flow,while insulators are those through
which electric charge is difficult to flow.
This distinction between the metals and
the insulators can be explained on the
basisof the number of free electrons in
them.Metals have a large number of
freeelectrons which act as charge
carriers,while insulators have practically
no free electrons.
There are however, certain solids whose
electrical conductivity is intermediate
between metals and insulators. They are
called ’’Semiconductors‟. Carbon,
silicon and germanium are examples of
semi-conductors. In semiconductors the
outermost electrons are neither so
rigidly bound with the atom as in an
insulator,nor so loosely bound as in
metal. At absolute zero a semiconductor
becomesan ideal insulator.
Theory and
Definition
Semiconductors are the materials
whose electrical conductivity lies in
between metals and insulator.
The energy band structure of the
semiconductors is similar to the
insulators but in their case, the size of
the forbidden energy gap is much
smaller than that of the insulator.In this
class of crystals, the forbidden gap is of
the order of about 1ev, and the two
energy bands are distinctly separate with
no overlapping. At absolute o0, no
electron has any energy even to jump
the forbidden gap and reach the
conduction band. Therefore the
substance is an insulator. But when we
heat the crystal and thus provide some
energy to the atoms and their electrons,it
becomes an easy matter for some
electrons to jump the small (» 1
ev)energy gap and go to conduction
band.Thus at higher temperatures, the
crystal becomes a conductors. This is
the specific property of the crystal
which is known as a semiconductor.

Effect of temperature
on conductivity of
Semiconductor
At 0K, all semiconductors are
insulators.The valence band at absolute
zero is completely filled and there are no
free electrons in conduction band. At room
temperature the electrons jump to the
conduction band due to the thermal energy.
When the temperature increases, a large
number of electrons cross over the
forbidden gap and jump from valence to
conduction band. Hence conductivity of
semiconductor increases with temperature

INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOS
Pure semiconductors are called
intrinsic semi-conductors.In a pure
semiconductor, each atom behaves as if
there are 8 electrons in its valence shell
and therefore the entire material behaves
as an insulator at low temperatures.
 A semiconductor atom needs energy
of the order of 1.1ev to shake off the
valence electron. This energy becomes
available to it even at room temperature.
Due to thermal agitation of crystal
structure, electrons from a fewcovalent
bonds come out. The bondfrom which
electron is freed, a vacancy is created
there. The vacancy in the covalent bond
is called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other
electron in a covalent bond. As an
electron from covalent bond moves to
fill the hole, the hole is created in the
covalent bond from which the electron
has moved. Since the direction of
movement of the hole is opposite to that
of the negative electron, a hole behaves
as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at
room temperature, a pure semiconductor
will have electrons and holes wandering
in random directions.These electrons
and holes are called intrinsic carriers
As the crystal is neutral, the number of
free electrons will be equal to the
number of holes. In an intrinsic
semiconductor, if ne denotes the
electron number density in conduction
band, nh the hole number density in
valence band and ni the number density
or concentration of charge carriers, then

ne = nh = ni
Extrinsic
semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-
conductors is poor, so intrinsic semi-
conductors are of little practical
importance. The conductivity of pure
semi-conductor can, however be
enormously increased by addition of
some pentavalent or a trivalent impurity
in a very small amount (about 1 to 106
parts of the semi-conductor). The
process of adding an impurity to a pure
semiconductor so as to improve
itsconductivity is called doping. Such
semi-conductors are called extrinsic
semi-conductors. Extrinsic
semiconductors are of two types :i) n-
type semiconductor
ii) p-type semiconducto

n-type
semiconductor
 When an impurity atom belonging to
group V of the periodic table like
Arsenicis added to the pure semi-
conductor,then four of the five impurity
electrons form covalent bonds by
sharing one electron with each of the
four nearest silicon atoms, and fifth
electron from each impurity atom is
almost free to conduct electricity. As the
pentavalent impurity increases the
number of free elctrons, it is called
donor impurity. The electrons so set free
in the silicon crystalare called extrinsic
carriers and the n-type Si-crystal is
called n-type extrinsic semiconductor.
Therefore n-type Si-crystal will have a
large number of free
electrons (majority carriers) and have a
small number of holes (minority
carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction
band one can think that all such
electrons create a donor energy level
just below the conduction band as
shown in figure. As the energy gap
between donor energy level and the
conduction band is very small, the
electrons can easily raise themselves to
conduction band even at room
temperature. Hence, the conductivity of
n-type extrinsic semiconductor is
markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic
semiconductor,the number density of the
conduction band (ne) and the number
density of
holes in the valence band (nh) differ
from that in a pure semiconductor. If ni
is the number density of electrons is
conduction band, then it is proved that
ne.nh = ni2

p -type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is
added in pure semi-conductor, the
impurity atom can provide only three
valence electrons for covalent bond
formation. Thus a gap is left in one of
the covalent bonds. The gap acts as a
hole that tends to accept electrons. As
the trivalent impurity atoms
acceptelectrons from the silicon crystal,
it is called acceptor impurity. The holes
so created are extrinsic carriers and the
p-type Si-crystal so obtained is called p-
type extrinsic semiconductor. Again, as
the pure Si-crystal also possesses a few
electrons and holes, therefore, the p-type
si-crystal will have a large number
ofholes (majority carriers) and a
smallnumber of electrons (minority
carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction
band one can think that all such holes
create an accepter energy level just
above the top of the valance band as
shown in figure. The electrons from
valence band can raise themselves to the
accepter energy level by absorbing
thermal energy at room temperature and
in turn create holes in the valence band.
 Number density of valence band
holes(nh) in p-type semiconductor
isapproximately equal to that of the
acceptor atoms (Na) and is very large as
compared to the number density of
conduction band electrons (ne). Thus,

nh >> Na > > ne

Electrical Resistivity of
Semiconductors
Consider a block of semiconductor
of length L1 area of cross-section A and
having number density of electrons and
holes as ne and nh respectively.
Suppose that on applying a potential
difference, say V, a current I flows
through it as shown in figure. The
electron current (Ic) and the hole current
(Ih) constitute the current I flowing
through the semi conductor i.e.
I=Ie + Ih (i)
It ne is the number density of
conduction band electrons in the
semiconductor and ve , the drift
velocityof electrons then
Ie = eneAve
Similarly, the hole current,
Ih = enh Av h From (i)
I = ene Ave + enhAv h
I = eA(neve + nhvh) (ii)
 If p is the resistivity of the material
of the semiconductor, then the resistance
offered by the semiconductor to the flow
of current is given by :
R =p l/A (iii)
Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and
(iii) we have
V = RI = p l/A eA (neve + nhvh)

V=p le(neve +nhvh)

if E is the electric field set up
across the semiconductor,then;
E=V/l (v)
from equation (iv) and (v), we have
E = pe (neve+ nhvh)
1/ p = e (neve /E + nhvh /E)
 On applying electric field, the drift
velocity acquired by the electrons (or
holes) per unit strength of electric field
is called mobility of electrons (or holes).
Therefore, mobility of electrons and
holes is given by :
µe = ve/E and µh = vh/E
1/ p =e(ne µe +nh µh ) (vi)
Also,sigma = 1/p is called
conductivity of the materialof
semiconductor
sigma =e(ne µe +nh µh) (vii)
The relation (vi) and (vii) show that the
conductivity and resistivity of a
semiconductor depend upon the electron
and hole number densities and their
mobilities. As ne and nh increases with
rise intemperature, therefore,
conductivity of semiconductor increases
with rise in temperature and resistivity
decreases with rise in temperature