Module IV: Semiconductors-I

Dr. L. N. Patro
GITAM University
Bangalore

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 1

Introduction Syllabus of
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors module IV
Carrier concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductors

Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors

Variation of carrier concentration with temperature

Conductivity with temperature

Drift and Diffusion currents in Semiconductors

Carrier transport phenomena.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 2
Introduction
✓Semiconductors are the solids with relatively narrow band gaps. The band gap is the
difference in energy between the lowest point of the conduction band (conduction band
edge) and highest point of the valence band (valence band edge).
✓Ex: Ge, Eg = 0.7eV, Si, Eg = 1.1eV, Indium Antimonide, Eg = 0.17eV, Gallium
Arsenide, Eg = 1.43eV etc.
✓Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical properties lie between conductors
and insulators. Resistivity values of semiconductors lie in between the metals and
insulators (10-2-109 0hm-cm)
✓Contrary to metal conductors, the resistance of semiconducting crystals decreases
with increase in temperature.
✓Both the electrons in the conduction band and the vacant orbitals or holes left behind
in the valence band contribute to the electrical conductivity.
✓Devices based on semiconductors include transistors, switches, diodes etc.
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 3
Semiconductor Materials
❖Elemental semiconductors – Si and Ge (column IV of periodic table) .
❖Compound semiconductors – Combinations of elements of column III and column V
(Ex: Indium antimonide and Galium arsenide), elements from column II and VI (Zinc
sulfide and Cadmium sulfide), elements from column IV and IV (Silicon carbide)
❖There are also three-element (ternary) compounds such as GaAsP and four-elements
(quaternary) compounds such as InGaAsP.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 4

Band theory of a solid
•A solid is formed by bringing together isolated single atoms.
•Consider the combination of two atoms. If the atoms are far apart there is no
interaction between them and the energy levels are the same for each atom.
•If the atoms are close together the electron wave functions will overlap and the
energy levels are shifted with respect to each other.
•A solid will have millions of atoms close together in a lattice so these energy levels
will creates bands each separated by a gap.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 5

Semiconductors are classified into two types: 1. Intrinsic semiconductors and Extrinsic
semi conductors.

Intrinsic semiconductors
✓A semiconductor which does not have any kind of impurities, behaves as an insulator
at 0K and exhibits conductivity at higher temperature is known as intrinsic
semiconductor .
✓Ex: Pure chemical substances like Germanium, Silicon, GaAs, InSb, SiC
✓At absolute zero, the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band which
is separated by a distance Eg (band gap) from the valence band is empty. Thus they
behave as insulator at absolute zero.

Conduction band Ec
Eg At O K
Ev
Valence band 6
✓However as the temperature increases, the electrons from the valence band get
excited. The excitation of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band
leaves a equal number of vacancies known as holes in the valence band.
✓Both electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band serve as the
charge carriers and contribute to the electrical conductivity.
✓In an intrinsic semiconductors, the number of holes and the number of electrons are
equal and are low.
Eg = Ec − Ev
✓The Fermi level is at the middle of the valence and conduction bands.
Ec + Ev
Ef =
2

Conduction band Ec
Eg -------------------------- Ef At Room temperature
Ev
Valence band

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 7

 Electrons and Holes
Si is an tetravalent elements– each atom of Si (Ge) has 4 valence electrons in
crystal matrix. Each silicon atom is covalently bonded with 4 silicon atoms.

✓For T > 0 thermal fluctuations

✓T = 0K all electrons are bound
can break electrons free creating
in covalent bonds
electron-hole pairs
no carriers available for
Both can move throughout the
conduction.
lattice and therefore conduct
current.
Extrinsic Semiconductors
✓A semiconductor doped with impurities is called extrinsic semiconductors. The
process of adding impurities is called doping.
✓Based on the type of impurities added in pure semiconductors like Ge or Si, the
extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two categories.
1. N-type semiconductors and 2. P-type semiconductors

N-type semiconductors
✓A semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity is called a N-type semiconductor.
Typical examples of pentavalent impurities include arsenic, antimony.
✓When these impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor like Ge, four electrons
are involved in covalent bonding with four neighboring Ge atoms. The fifth electron has
no place to form the covalent bond and remains free to move randomly in the crystal
lattice. Each impurity atom thus donates a free electron to the semiconductor and such
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 9
impurity is known as donor impurity.
✓The energy level of fifth electron is called donor level.
✓The donor level, Ed is close to the bottom of the conduction band. Most of the donor
level electrons are excited in to the conduction band at room temperature and become
the majority charge carriers. The remaining positive charges (holes) are localized on the
immobile impurity atom and does not take part in conductivity and become the minor
carriers.
✓In the case of Ge doped with donor impurities, the energy required to move an
electron from donor level to conduction band is of the order of 0.0127eV.
✓In N-type semiconductors, major carriers are electrons and minor carriers are holes.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 10

P-type semiconductors
✓A semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity is called a P-type semiconductor.
Typical examples of trivalent impurities include galium, indium.
✓When these impurities are added to the intrinsic semiconductor like Ge, three
electrons of the impurity atom are involved in covalent bonding with three neighboring
Ge atoms. There is a deficiency of one electron to complete the fourth bond. This
electron deficiency is called the hole. Since there is a strong tendency of semiconductor
crystal to form covalent bonds, a hole attracts one electron from a nearby covalent
bond. Consequently a new hole is created at the originally occupied electron. This hole
is again occupied by another electron from a nearby bond giving rise to another hole
and so on. Thus a hole move freely throughout the lattice.
✓Each impurity atom accepts electrons from the nearby Ge atoms. So such impurity is
known as acceptor impurity and it produces holes inside a semiconductor.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 11

✓The acceptor level, Ea (the energy level corresponding to the acceptor impurities) is
close to the valence band.
✓The concentration of holes in the valence band is more than the concentration of
electrons in the conduction band and the Fermi level shifts towards the valence band.
✓In P-type semiconductors, major carriers are holes and minor carriers are electrons.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 12

Carrier concentration in Intrinsic Semiconductors
✓The number of charge carriers per unit volume is known as carrier concentration.
✓In intrinsic semiconductors, the charge carriers are electrons in the conduction band
and holes in the valence band.
✓The number of conduction electrons will be equal to the number of vacant sites or
holes in the valence band.
Concentration of electrons in the conduction band
✓Let ‘dn’ be the number of electrons available between energy interval E and E+ dE in
the conduction band; dn = Z(E) F(E) dE ………………………………………..(1)
where Z(E) dE is number of states in the energy range E and E + dE, Z(E) is the
density of states. and F(E) is the probability of electron occupancy or in other words
each state has an occupation probability of F(E).
✓If Ec is the energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band, the number of
electrons can calculated by integrating equation 1 from Ec to the energy corresponding


to the top of the conduction band ∞, then n =  Z ( E ) F ( E )dE...................................................(2) 13

Ec
✓We know that the density of states i.e., the number of energy states per unit volume
within the energy interval E and E + dE is given by
4 3 1
Z ( E )dE = 3 (2m) 2 E 2 dE..................................................(3)
h
✓Since the electron is moving in a periodic potential, its mass has to be replaced by its
effective mass, hence 4 3 1
Z ( E )dE = 3 (2me ) E 2 dE
* 2

h
✓Since the E starts at the bottom of the conduction band Ec
4 3 1
Z ( E )dE = 3 (2me ) ( E - Ec ) 2 dE..................................(4)
* 2

h
✓Probability of an Electron occupying an energy state E is given by
1
F (E) = ................................................(5)
 E - Ef 
1 + exp  
 k BT 
where k B is the Boltzmann cons tan t
For all possible temperatures E - EF  kT
1
F (E) =
 E - Ef 
exp  
 k BT 
 E - EF   EF - E 
F ( E ) = exp  -  = exp   ......................................(6) 14
 k B T   B 
k T
✓Substitute Z(E) (Equation 4) and F(E) (Equation 6) values in Equation (2), we get

n=  Z ( E ) F ( E )dE
Ec

4 3 1
E −E
n =  3 (2me ) ( E − Ec ) 2 exp  F
 2
 dE
Ec
h  B 
k T

3 
4 1
E −E
n = 3 (2me )  ( E − Ec ) 2 exp  F
 2
 dE..................(7)
h Ec  B 
k T

4 3
 EF   1
 −E 
  ( E − Ec ) exp 
 2
n = 3 (2me ) exp  2
 dE
h  k BT  Ec  k BT 

✓To solve this integral, let us put

E − Ec = x
if E = Ec , x = 0
E = Ec + x
dE = dx
4 3
 EF   1
 −E 

 2
n = 3 (2me ) exp  ( E − Ec ) 2
exp   dE
h  k BT  0  k BT 

4 3
 EF 
1
 Ec + x 

 2
n = 3 (2me ) exp  ( x ) 2
exp −   dx
h  kT  0  k BT 

4 3
 EF − Ec 
1
 x 
  ( x) exp − 
 2
n = 3 (2me ) exp  2
 dx........(8) 15
h  kT  0  k BT 
 we know that , gamma function
1
 1
 −x  3
 2

0 ( 2
x ) exp 
 k BT


dx = ( k B T2
)
2

substitute in equation (8)

 1

4 3
 2
 E − E  
3
 
2
n = 3 (2m ) exp  F c
 (k BT ) 2
2 
e
h  k BT   

3
 2 m k T 
 2  E − Ec 
n=2  e B
2 exp  F  ..................................(9)
 h   k BT 

This is the expression for concentration of electrons in the conduction band of an

intrinsic semiconductor.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 16

Concentration of holes in the valence band

✓Let ‘dp’ be the number of holes or vacancies in the energy interval ‘E and E + dE’ in
the valence band
dp = Z ( E )dE {1 − F ( E )}
Ev
p= 
bottom of the band
z ( E ){1 − F ( E )}dE................(1)

Where Z(E) dE is the number of states in the energy interval E and E + dE and 1 - F(E)
is the probability that a hole occupied a level E in the valence band.
✓Density of states for the holes in the valence band is

4  2
3 1
Z ( E )dE = 3 (2mh ) E 2 dE
h
✓Since Ev is the energy of the top of the valence band, the above expression can be
written as 4  2
3 1
Z ( E )dE = 3 (2mh ) ( Ev − E ) 2 dE..............................(2)
h
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 17
 ✓Probability of a hole occupying an energy state E is given by

1
1 − F (E) = 1 −
 E − Ef 
1 + exp  
 k BT 
−1
  E − E f 
1 − F ( E ) = 1 − 1 + exp  
  B 
k T
neglect higher order terms in above exp ansion
for higher T values
  E − Ef   E − Ef 
1 − F ( E ) = 1 − 1 − exp   = exp   ......................(3)
  k BT   k BT 

✓Substitute Z(E) (Equation 2) and 1 - F(E) (Equation 3) values in Equation (1)

Ev
p= 
bottom of the band
Z ( E ){1 − F ( E )}dE

4  E − EF 
Ev 3 1


 2
p= (2 mh ) ( Ev − E ) 2
exp   dE
−
h3  k BT 
4  − EF  v  E 
3 1E

  ( Ev − E ) exp 
 2
p = 3 (2mh ) exp  2
 dE........(4)
h  k BT  −  k BT 
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 18
✓To solve the above equation, let us put
Ev − E = x
E = Ev − x
dE = −dx
4  − EF  v  E 
3 E 1

  ( Ev − E ) exp 
 2
p = 3 (2mh ) exp  2
 dE
h  k BT  −  k BT 
4 3
 − EF  0 1
 Ev − x 
  ( x) exp 
 2
p = 3 (2mh ) exp  2
 (−dx)
h  k BT  −  kT 
4 3
 Ev − EF   12  −x 

 2
p = 3 (2mh ) exp  ( x ) exp   dx...................(5)
h  k BT  0  k BT 
we know that , gamma function
1
 1
 −x  3
 2

0 ( x 2
) exp 
 k BT


dx = ( k B T2
)
2

substitute in equation (5)

1
4 3
 2  Ev − EF  
3 2 Equation 6 is the expression for concentration
p= (2 mh) exp   (kT )
2
h3  k BT  2
of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic

 2 m k T 

3
2 Ev − EF 
semiconductor.
p = 2 h B
2  exp   ................(6)
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 19
 h   k BT 
Intrinsic Carrier Concentration
✓In intrinsic Semiconductors n = p
✓Hence n = p = ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration

ni2 = np
ni = np
 3
 3

  2 me k BT  2

 EF − Ec     2 mh k BT  2

 Ev − EF 
ni = 2   exp    
2  exp  
  h2   k BT    h2   k BT 
  
3
 2 k BT 2
  4
3
 Ev − Ec 
ni = 2   ( m m
e h ) exp  
 h 
2
 2 k BT 
3
 2 k BT 2
  4
3
 − Eg 
ni = 2   ( m m
e h ) exp  
 h 
2
 2 k BT 

Where Ec – Ev = Eg is the band gap.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 20

Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductors
In intrinsic semiconductors n = p
3 3
 2 m k T 

 EF − Ec 
2  2 m k T 

 Ev − EF 
2
 exp   = 2  exp  
e B h B
2 2 2
 h   k BT   h   k BT 
3 3
 2 mek BT  2  EF − Ec   2 mhk BT  2  Ev − EF 
  exp   =   exp  
 h2   k BT   h2   k BT 
3
 2 E   m  2  E + Ec 
exp  F  =  h  exp  v 
 k BT   me   k BT 
taking logarithms on both sides

2 EF 3  m   E + Ec 
= log  h  +  v 
k BT 2  me   k BT 
3k BT  mh   Ev + Ec 
EF = log    +  
4  me   2 
 m* 
In int rinsic semiconductor we know that me* = mh* , so log  h*  = log1 = 0
 me 
 E + Ec 
Hence , EF =  v 
 2 
✓Thus the Fermi energy level EF is located in the middle of the forbidden band.
✓Normally me*  mh* , So the Fermi level is just above the middle of the energy gap.
✓The position of Fermi level does not depend on temperature or slightly increases with
increase in temperature. 21
Carrier concentration in N-type semiconductor

✓Consider Nd is the donor concentration i.e., the number of donor atoms per unit
volume of the material and Ed is the donor energy level.
✓The donor level is very nearer to the conduction band, so the effect of valence band
may be neglected.
✓At very low temperatures all donor levels are filled with electrons.
✓With increase of temperature more and more donor atoms get ionized and the
density of electrons in the conduction band increases.
✓The number of electrons in the conduction band must be equal to the number of
positive ionized donors per unit volume in the donor level.

22
✓Density of electrons in conduction band is given by
by
3
 2 m k T 
 2 EF − Ec 
n = 2 e B
2  exp   ...............................(1)
 h   kBT 

✓The number of vacancies or ionized donors per unit volume in the donor level is

 
 
N d [1- F ( Ed )] = N d 1 - 
1
  E -E 
 1 + exp  d F 
  k BT  
  Ed - EF  
 exp   
= Nd   k B T  
  Ed - EF  
 1 + exp  
  B k T  
if we assume that EF lies more than a few k BT above the donor level then the density
of positive ionized donor is given by
 E -E 
N d [1- F ( Ed )] = N d exp  d F  ..............................(2)
 k BT 

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 23

✓At very low temperatures, when electron-hole pairs are not generated due to
breaking of covalent bond ,the number of electrons in the conduction band must be
equal to the number of ionized donors.
3
 2 m k T 
 EF − Ec 
2  Ed − EF 
 exp   = N d exp  
e B
2 2
 h   Bk T   k BT 

✓Taking logarithm and rearranging we get

3
 EF − Ec   Ed − EF   2 m k T  2
 −  = log N d − log 2 
e B
2
 k BT   k BT   h 
Nd
2 EF − ( Ed + Ec ) = k BT log 3
 2 me k BT  2

2 
 h2 
( Ed + Ec ) k BT Nd
EF = + log 3
...........................(3)
2 2
 2 mek BT  2
2 
 h2 
at , 0 K
( Ed + Ec ) At 0K Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level
EF =
2 and the bottom of the conduction band
Substituting EF from equation 3 in equation 1 and rearranging the density of electrons in
the conduction band is
2 mek BT 32  E − Ec 
n = 2( 2
) exp  F 
h  k BT 
  
  
  ( E + E ) k T Nd  
 d c
+ B
log 3 
− Ec 
 2 2
 2 mek BT  2  
 2   
 EF − Ec    
2
 h  
exp   = exp  
 Bk T   k BT 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1

 E − Ec   ( Ed + Ec ) + log (Nd ) 2 Ec 
exp  F  = exp  2k T −
k BT 
1

 k BT  
2

 
B 3

 2  2 me k BT  

 2

   h2
 


   
 
 
 
 1

 EF − Ec   ( Ed − Ec ) (Nd ) 2

exp   = exp  + log 1

 k BT  
2k BT
 
2
 3

 2  2 me k BT   

 2

   h2
  
  
   
1
 E − Ec  ( Nd ) 2 ( Ed − Ec )
exp  F = 1 exp
 k BT  2 2 k BT
 3

 2  2 me k BT  
 2

  h2
 
 
 
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 25
 3
 2 m k T 
 2  EF − Ec 
n = 2 e B
2  exp  
 h   Bk T 
 
 
 
3  1

 2 me k BT  2  ( Nd ) 2 ( Ed − Ec ) 
n = 2 2   1 exp 
 h   2 2 k T 
 
3 B
   2 me k BT  2 
 
 2 2   
  h   
  
3
1
 2 m k T 
 4( Ed − Ec )
n = (2 N d ) 
2 e B
2  exp ...................(4)
 h  2 k BT

This is the expression for the carrier concentration in N-type semiconductors. It is

seen that the density of electrons in the conduction band is proportional to the square
root of the donor concentration at moderately low temperatures.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 26

Variation of Fermi level with temperature in N type semiconductor
✓ At 0K, the Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the donor level and the bottom
of the conduction band
✓With increase of temperature EF increases slightly. It falls below the donor level.
✓As the temperature is increased more and more donor atoms are ionized resulting n
generation of electron - hole pairs due to breaking of covalent bonds and the
material tends to behave in intrinsic manner.
✓The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level EF = (Ec+Ev)/2

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 27

Carrier concentration in P-type semiconductor

✓Consider Na is the acceptor concentration i.e., the number of acceptor atoms per
unit volume of the material and Ea is the acceptor energy level.
✓The acceptor level is very nearer to the valence band, so the effect of conduction
band may be neglected.
✓At very low temperatures all acceptor levels are empty.
✓With increase of temperature acceptor atoms get ionized and the electrons move
from valence band and occupy the vacant sites in the acceptor energy level thereby
leaving the holes in the valence band

28
✓Density of holes in valence band is given by by
3
 2 m k T 
 2  Ev − EF 
p = 2 h B
2  exp   ...............................(1)
 h   kBT 

✓The density of ionized acceptors in the acceptor level is

Na
N a F ( Ea ) =
 E -E 
1 + exp  a F 
 k BT 
 E -E 
sin ce Ea - EF  k BT , 1 can be neglected compare to exp  a F 
 k BT 
 E -E 
N a F ( Ea ) =N a exp  F a  ..............................(2)
 k BT 

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 29

✓At very low temperatures, when electron-hole pairs are not generated due to
breaking of covalent bond ,the number of holes in the valence band must be equal to
the number of ionized acceptors.
3
 2 m k T  
 Ev − EF
2   EF − Ea 
 exp   = N a exp  
h B
2 2
 h   kBT   Bk T 

✓Taking logarithm and rearranging we get

3
 Ev − EF   EF − Ec   2 m k T   2
 −  = log N a − log 2 
h B
 2
 k BT   k BT   h 
Na
( Ev + Ec − 2 EF ) = k BT log 3
 2 mh k BT  2

2 
 h2 
( Ev + Ec ) k BT Na
EF = − log 3
...........................(3)
2 2
 2 mh k BT  2
2 
 h2 
at , 0 K
( Ev + Ec ) At 0K Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level
EF =
2 and top of the valence band.
Substituting EF from equation 3 in equation 1 and rearranging the density of holes in the
valence band is
3
 2 mhk BT  2  Ev − EF 
p = 2 2  exp  
 h   k BT 
  
  
  ( Ev + Ea ) k BT Na  
 Ev −  − log 3 
  2 2
 2 mh k BT  2  
  2  
 Ev − EF     h2   
exp   = exp  
 k BT  
k BT

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1

 EF − Ec   ( Ev − Ea ) (Na ) 2 
exp   = exp  + log 1

 k BT  
2 k BT 2

 3

 2  2 mh k BT   

 2

   h2
  
  
   
1
 E − EF  ( Na ) 2 ( Ev − Ea )
exp  v = 1 exp
 k BT  2 2 k BT
 3

2  2 m 
h Bk T  2

  h2
 

 

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 31

 3
 2 m k T 
 2  Ev − EF 
p = 2 h B
2  exp  
 h   B k T 
 
 
 
3  1

 2 mhk BT  2  (Na ) 2 ( Ev − Ea ) 
p = 2 2   1 exp 
 h   2 2 k T 
 
3 B
   2 mh k BT  2 
 
 2 2   
  h   
  
3
1
 2 m k T 
 4 ( Ev − Ea )
p = (2 N a ) 
2 h B
2  exp ...................(4)
 h  2 k B T

This is the expression for the carrier concentration in P-type semiconductors. It is

seen that the density of holes in the valence band is proportional to the square root of
the acceptor concentration at moderately low temperatures.
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 32
Variation of Fermi level with temperature in P type semiconductor
✓ At 0K, the Fermi level lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level and top of
the valence band. With increase of temperature EF increases slightly. It moves above
the acceptor level.
✓As the temperature is increased more and more acceptor atoms are ionized
resulting generation of electron - hole pairs due to breaking of covalent bonds and
the material tends to behave in intrinsic manner.
✓The Fermi level gradually moves towards the intrinsic Fermi level EF = (Ec+Ev)/2

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 33

Problem 1: Calculate the intrinsic concentration of charge carriers at 300 K. Given that
me* = 0.12mo and mh*= 0.28 m0 and the energy gap for germanium is 0.67eV.
me* = 0.12m0
mh* = 0.28m0
m0 = 9.110−31 kg
T = 300 K
Eg = 0.67eV ;1eV = 1.6  10−19 joules
k B = 1.38  10−23 m 2 kg s −2 K −1 ; h = 6.626  10−34 m 2 kg / s
3
 2 k BT  2 * * 4
3
 - Eg 
ni = 2   ( m m
e h ) exp  
 h 
2
 2k BT 
3
 2 1.38 10−23  300  2  -0.67 1.6 10−19 
3 3
−31 2
= 2  (0.12  0.28) (9.110 ) exp 
4

−68 −23 
 (6.626) 10  2 1.38 10  300 
2

= 4.7 1018 / m3

Problem 2: An intrinsic semiconductor A has an energy gap of 0.36eV while material

B has an energy gap of 0.72eV. Compare the intrinsic carrier densities in these two
materials. At 300 K. Assume that the effective mass of all the electrons and holes are
equal to the free electron mass

Given me* = mh* = m, T = 300 K

Eg ( A) = 0.36eV and Eg ( B) = 0.67eV
2k BT = 0.052eV
ni ( A) exp(-0.36 / 2k BT )  0.72 - 0.36   0.36 
= = exp   = exp   = 1015
ni ( B) exp(-0.72 / 2k BT )  2k BT   0.052  34
Electrical conductivity of Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors

For an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p = ni

The intrinsic conductivity = σ = nie(μe+μh)
μe= mobility of electrons, μh = mobility of holes, e = charge of electrons/holes
We know intrinsic carrier concentration

3
 2 k BT  2
3
 - Eg 
ni = 2   ( m * * 4
m
e h ) exp  
 h 
2
 2k BT 
3
 2 k BT  2
3
 - Eg 
Thus  i = 2   ( m * * 4
m
e h ) exp   ( e +  h )
 h 
2
 2k BT 
 - Eg 
 i =  0 exp   ......................(1)
 2 k BT 
3
 2 k BT  2 * * 4
3
where  i (0) = 2   (me mh ) ( e + h ) is the pre exp onential cons tan t.
 
2
h
3
-
2
At high temperatures the mobilty is proportional toT

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 35

From equation 1
Eg
ln  i = ln  i (0) -
2 k BT

A plot of ln σi versus 1/T will be a straight line with a negative slope Eg/2KB. Thus
knowing the slope of the line, the band gap Eg can be determined.
The conductivity increases with increase in temperature.

Extrinsic semiconductors
✓For P-type: p>>n
σ = neμn+ peμp= e(nμn+ pμp) So σp = peμp
We have
3 ✓For N-type: n>>p
1
 2 m k T 

( Ed − Ec )
4
n = (2 N d ) 
2 e B
 exp
 h 2
 2kBT So σe = neμn
3
1
 2 m k T 

( Ev − Ea )
4
p = (2 N a ) 
2 h B
2 exp
 h  2kBT

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 36

Variation of carrier concentration with temperature
In extrinsic semiconductors, the variation of carrier concentration with temperature can
divided into three regions.
1. Impurity range 2. Exhaustion range 3. Intrinsic range

1. Impurity range:
✓ At OK, both valence band and conduction band will not have any free charge
carriers. So the conductivity at 0K is zero.
✓ As the temperature increases, donor or acceptor atoms gets ionized. The
conductivity increases until all the donor or acceptor atoms are ionized. This range is
called impurity range.
✓ In the case of N-type semiconductors, the Fermi level shifts towards the donor level
from the middle of the Ec and Ed.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 37

 2. Exhaustion range
✓Above certain temperature, all the impurity atoms are ionized. So the concentration
of electrons (holes) in conduction (valence) band remains constant over a range of
temperatures. This range is known as exhaustion range.
✓In this range, though the carrier concentration remains constant , the mobility
decreases slightly with temperature. So the conductivity slightly decreases in this
region.
3. Intrinsic range
✓If the temperature is further increased, the covalent bond in lattice are broken and
generate holes and electrons in the valence and conduction band respectively.
✓Both electrons and holes contribute to the conductivity. So the conductivity increases
with increase in temperature.
✓The Fermi level moves down gradually and reach the middle of the forbidden gap.
That is the extrinsic semiconductor behave like an intrinsic semiconductor.
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 38
✓This range is called intrinsic range.
 Intermediate range

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 39

Problem 3: The intrinsic carrier density at 300 K in silicon is 1.5× 1016/m3. if the
electron and hole mobilities are 0.13 and 0.05 m2V-1s-1, respectively, calculate the
conductivity of the intrinsic silicon.
Given ni = 1.5 1016 / m3 , e = 0.13m2V -1s -1 , h = 0.05m2V -1s -1
T = 300 K ,  i = ?
 i = ni e(e + h ) = 1.5 1016 1.6 10-19  (0.13 + 0.05) = 1.5 1016 1.6 10-19  0.18 = 0.432 10-3 -1m-1

Problem 4: The intrinsic carrier density at 300K in germanium is 2.37× 1019/m3. if the
electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2V-1s-1, respectively, calculate the
resistivity of the intrinsic germanium.

Given ni = 2.37 1019 / m3 , e = 0.38m 2V -1s -1 , h = 0.18m 2V -1s -1

T = 300 K ,  = ?
 i = ni e( e + h ) = 2.37 1019 1.6 10-19  (0.38 + 0.18) = 2.37 1019 1.6 10 -19  0.56 = 2.123 -1m-1
1 1
we know  = = = 0.47m
 2.123
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 40
Drift and Diffusion currents in Semiconductors
✓In materials, the electrical current arises due to the movement of charge carriers.
✓In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are the charge carriers.
There are two basic processes which cause electrons and holes to move in a
semiconductor are: (a) drift, which is the movement caused by electric fields, and (b)
diffusion, which is the flow caused by variations in the concentration, that is,
concentration gradients.
Drift Current
✓When an electric field E is applied across a semiconductor, every charge carriers
experience a force and thus acquires an average velocity known as drift velocity.
Further, this drift velocity gives rise to the drift current.
✓The total current due to holes and electrons in the presence of an applied electric field
is called drift current.
✓If vd is the drift velocity , the electric current density is given by J = nevd
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 41
✓The drift velocity is proportional to the electric field intensity E. Thus
 vd  E
or vd =  E , where  is the mobility, which is defined as the velocity gained by an electron per unit
electric field int ensity.
Thus J = ne E

✓In semiconductors, both electrons and holes are the charge carriers and the mobility of
electrons and holes are generally different. So, the corresponding drift current densities
due to electrons and holes are
J n (drift ) = nee E..................................(1)
J p (drift ) = peh E.................................(2)
Therefore the total drift current density, jdrift = J n (drift ) + J p ( drift )
jdrift = nee E + peh E = eE (ne + ph )...................................(3)
For int rinsic semi conductors, n = p = ni
Thus jdrift = ni eE ( e + h )..............................(4)
The current density J is related to the condutivity by the relation, J =  E
So, the conductivity of an int rinsic semiconductor due to drift action of electrons and holes is given by
 drift = ni e( e + h )
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 42
Diffusion Current
✓Diffusion current arises due to the motion of the charge carries from the region of
high concentration to the region of lower concentration.
✓In general the concentration of carriers varies with distance in a semiconductor.
✓The diffusion current is proportional to concentration gradient. Let us suppose the
concentration dn of electrons varies with distance x in the semiconductor, the
concentration gradient can be written as dn/dx
✓According to Fick’s law, the rate of flow of electrons is proportional to –dn/dx or the
rate of flow of electrons across unit area is equal to Dn dn/dx, where Dn is called
diffusion coefficient for electrons in semiconductors. This flow constitute an electron
current density
Jn(diffusion) = -e(rate of flow across unit area) = eDn dn/dx……………..(5)
✓The corresponding exprssion for holes in a semiconductor is
Jp(diffusion) = -eDp dp/dx……………..(6) where Dp is the diffusion coefficient for the
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 43
The difference in sign in equation 1 and 2 are associated with the opposite sign of the
charge in electron and hole.
✓The total diffusion current density is thus given by
Jdiffusion = Je(diffusion) + Jp(diffusion)
Jdiffusion = eDn dn/dx - eDp dp/dx……………………….(7)
✓In a semiconductor, the total current density is due to drift of carriers and diffusion of
carriers. Hence the total current flow in a semiconductor in one dimension can be
expressed as
✓J = Jdrift + Jdiffusion

✓J=eE(nμe+pμh)+ eDn dn/dx - eDp dp/dx

✓J=e[(nμeE+ Dn dn/dx) + (pμhE - Dp dp/dx)]

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 44

Problem 3: The intrinsic carrier density at 300 K in silicon is 1.5× 1016/m3. if the
electron and hole mobilities are 0.13 and 0.05 m2V-1s-1, respectively, calculate the
conductivity of the intrinsic silicon.
Given ni = 1.5 1016 / m3 , e = 0.13m2V -1s -1 , h = 0.05m2V -1s -1
T = 300 K ,  i = ?
 i = ni e(e + h ) = 1.5 1016 1.6 10-19  (0.13 + 0.05) = 1.5 1016 1.6 10-19  0.18 = 0.432 10-3 -1m-1

Problem 4: The intrinsic carrier density at 300K in germanium is 2.37× 1019/m3. if the
electron and hole mobilities are 0.38 and 0.18 m2V-1s-1, respectively, calculate the
resistivity of the intrinsic germanium.

Given ni = 2.37 1019 / m3 , e = 0.38m 2V -1s -1 , h = 0.18m 2V -1s -1

T = 300 K ,  = ?
 i = ni e( e + h ) = 2.37 1019 1.6 10-19  (0.38 + 0.18) = 2.37 1019 1.6 10 -19  0.56 = 2.123 -1m-1
1 1
we know  = = = 0.47m
 2.123
Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 45
 Problem 5: Calculate the diffusion current density for a given semiconductor. Consider
silicon at T = 300 K. Assume the electron concentration varies linearly from n = 1012
cm−3 to n = 1016 cm−3 over the distance from x = 0 to x = 3 μm. Assume Dn = 35 cm2/s.
dn
J n = eDn
dx
dn = (10 − 1012 )cm −3
16

dx = (3 − 0)  m = 3  10− 4
Dn = 35cm 2 / s
dn −19 1016 − 1012 −19 1012 (104 − 1) −19 1012  9999
J n = eDn = (1.6 10 )  35  −4
= (1.6 10 )  35  −4
= (1.6 10 )  35  −4
= 186.6 A / cm 2
dx 3 10 3 10 3 10

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 46

 Assignments
1. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? Distinguish between P-type and
N-type semiconductors.
2. Obtain an expression for the carrier concentration of electrons in an intrinsic
semiconductor
3. Explain the variations of conductivity with temperature in intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors.
4. Write short notes on drift current and diffusion current in semiconductors.

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 47

 Intermediate range

✓A plot of log σi as a function of 1/T for an n-type semiconductor

✓At high temperatures , conductivity is due to phonon scattering
✓At low temperatures , conductivity is due to impurity ionization
✓At intermediate temperatures, neither of these two mechanisms are strong

Dr. L. N. Patro, GITAM University, Bangalore 48