Semiconductor Physics

What is Semiconductor ?
❖ The term conductor is applied to any material that will support
the generous flow of charge when a voltage source of limited
magnitude is applied across its terminals.
❖ An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of
conductivity under pressure from an applied voltage source
❖ A semiconductor conductor therefore, is a material that has a
conductivity level somewhere between the extremes of an
insulator and a conductor

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Have very low Have very high Have resistivity
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resistivity of 10 Ωm resistivity of 10⁷Ωm between 10-9Ωm
or greater or greater and 10⁷ Ωm

● Properties of semiconductor
1. The resistivity of semiconductors is in between conductor and
insulator, it is more than conductors and less than insulator
2. Can give unidirectional current
3. At room temperature semiconductor Virtually behave as an

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insulators but if their temperature is raised their resistance
decreases and they show conductivity, in other words they have
negative temperature coefficient of resistance

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4. Semiconductors can also be made by adding in them some
quantity of external material. The external materials are called
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impurities which impart free electrons to the semiconductor
❖ Solid state semiconductors were discovered in 1930 in which
charge carriers can be valid with small intensity of heat light and
voltage.
● Advantages of a semiconductor
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1. Semiconductor devices are much smaller in size and in

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weight as compared to Vacuum tubes.

2. These devices have much longer life as compared to life of
vacuum tubes.
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3. Semiconductors devices are much cheaper and are low.power

devices

● Disadvantages of a semiconductor
1. Semiconductor devices are very sensitive to changes of
temperature, whereas the vacuum tubes are less sensitive.
2. Semiconductor devices are not able to handle as much power
as vacuum tubes.
 3. The noise level in those devices is higher as compared to
vacuum tubes.

Energy bands

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Discrete energy is present
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In an isolated atom, energy of electrons depends on the orbit.
● Crystal
➢ In a crystal, atom comes close and electrons gain some
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directions with neighboring electrons and nucleus
➢ In a crystal, each atom has unique position hence each electron
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has unique position and interaction the different energy level

➢ Energy level, even when they belong to same subshell in
isolated atom then their energies are slightly greater or smaller
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than original energy

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❖ Valence band
➢ Range of energies possessed by valence orbit
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➢ It contains valence electron
➢ Does not participate in conduction
❖ Conduction band
➢ The band above the valence band is called conduction band
➢ Range of energy possessed by free electrons
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➢ Electrons may or may not exist here

➢ Responsible for electric conduction
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❖ Forbidden energy band

➢ Electrons in valence band gains energy and jump to conduction
band
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➢ Electron cannot be found between these two band

➢ Some level between conduction band in valence band is called
forbidden energy band
● Energy band for semiconductors
➢ The Forbidden gap in Si is 1.12 eV and in Ge it is 0.72 eV.
➢ The valence band of the semiconductor is full i.e. normal
condition and it behaves as an insulator
 ➢ The conduction band of a semiconductor is almost empty
i.e. It can easily receive electrons from the Valence band.

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● Energy band for conductors
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➢ The valence band and conduction band overlap each other
➢ Electrons move freely between these bands
➢ Forbidden band is therefore absent in conductors
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● Energy band for insulators

➢ The valence band is full and the conduction band is empty
➢ Forbidden gap is very large (about 15 EV)
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Intrinsic Semiconductor

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➢ A pure semiconductor or a semiconductor in its purest form is
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called 'intrinsic semiconductor. At absolute zero temperature, a
pure (or intrinsic) semiconductor behaves as an insulator. If its
temperature is raised, the covalent bonds are broken. Whenever
a free electron is generated, a hole is created simultaneously. In
other words, free electrons and holes are always generated in
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pairs. Electrons and holes generated like this are called

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thermally generated.
➢ The energy required for lifting an electron from the valence band
to the conduction band is equal to the forbidden gap. In case of
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Ge, it is 0.72 eV, and in case of Si, it is 1.12 eV. Due to more
gaps, less number of electron/hole pairs will be generated in
silicon than in germanium at room temperature. In other words at
room temperature conductivity of pure silicon will be less than
that of germanium.
For eg. Si = 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p²
➢ All four valence electrons are involved in covalent bond

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formation in Silicon or Germanium crystal
➢ At absolute 0°C temperature there are no free electrons as all
valence electrons are involved in covalent bond

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➢ A Semiconductor will behave as an insulator at 0°C
➢ On increasing temperature more and more thermal energy is
available
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➢ Some covalent bond may break and some free electrons are
generated
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● Holes
➢ It is a positive charge, it is vacancy due to thermally generated
electrons
 ➢ Recombination of thermally generated electrons and holes takes
place at all temperature
➢ The number of thermally generated free electron is equal to the
number of holes equals to ne = nh = ni
ni = Intrinsic concentration / charge carrier
➢ At room temperature 300°k
● Ge (ni) = 2.4×10¹⁹/m³
● Si (ni) = 1.5×10⁶/m³

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current generated in semiconductor is due to
1. Thermally generated electrons
2. Holes

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Extrinsic Semiconductor
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➢ The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor increases
with temperature even on reaching room temperature (27°C) its
conductivity is very poor.
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➢ The addition of certain impurities can increase the conductivity of

intrinsic semiconductor.
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➢ a very small amount of impurity atom (In parts of the median)

can increase the conductivity.
Eg. 1 atom →10⁸Ge→16 times (increases)
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One atom of impurity is 10⁸ pure Ge (atom) Increases conductivity by

16 times.
● Doping:- The process of addition of impurity intentionally is called
doping. The impurity is called dopant thus, semiconductor
formed is called doped semiconductor. The obtained
semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor
❖ Doping can be done in many ways:-
 1. Heating semiconductor in atmosphere of impurity atom so that
impurity atom diffuses in pure crystal.
2. Bombarding pure crystal with ions of impurity atoms.

P-Type N-Type
Extrinsic semiconductor are of two types based on their impurity atom
1. n-type (Pentavalent i.e. Five electrons in outer shell) [-ve type]

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Eg. Phosphorus, Arsenic
2. p-type (Trivalent i.e. three electrons in outer shell) [+ve type]

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Eg. Boron, Aluminium
● N type
➢ The ionization energy required to prefix valence electron is very
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low (0.01 eV for Ge and 0.05 eV for Si) comparing to that of pure
semiconductor
➢ In impure semiconductors, energy required to break covalent
bond of free electrons is 0.72 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si
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➢ Energy required to the 5th valence electron can be obtained at

room temperature so this electron is set free and it goes to
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conduction band and becomes available for electric conduction

➢ Pentavalent impurities donates one electron per atom hence
they are called Donor impurity
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➢ The conductivity increases with doping more doping leads to

more Donor impurities hence more free electrons
➢ 9 electrons in conduction band are from Donor, One electron

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hole pair is generated due to pairing of covalent bond
➢ N-type semiconductors are -ve type as -ve charge are in majority

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➢ N-type conductors are electrically neutral as pentavalent
impurities bring 1 extra electron but it also brings 1 extra proton
● P Type
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➢ This requires very small amount of energy (0.01 eV→ Ge 0.05
eV→ Si)
➢ This energy is available at room temperature hence large
number of holes are available for electric conduction
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➢ Trivalent impurities accept an electron from neighboring atom

and hence called as acceptor impurity
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➢ The electrical conductivity depends on level of doping more

doping→ more acceptor impurities →more holes depending on
temperature
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➢ 9 holes are generated due to acceptor impurity one electron hole

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pair is formed by breaking of bonds
➢ P-type semiconductors are neutral as trivalent impurity is short of
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one valence electrons but it is also short of one proton
N-type P-type
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1. It has pentavalent impurity 1. It has trivalent impurity

 2. 4 out of 5 valence electrons of 2. Three valence electrons of Al
‘P’ forms covalent bond with forms three covalent bond with
neighboring Si atoms but the neighboring Si atom
5th electron is nearly free

3. Energy required to the 5th 3. This energy is available at room

valence electron can be temperature hence large number of
obtained at room temperature holes are available for electric

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so this electron is set free and it conduction
goes to conduction band and

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becomes available for electric
conduction
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4. Pentavalent impurities donates 4. Trivalent impurities accept an
one electron per atom hence electron from neighboring atom and
they are called Donor impurity hence called as acceptor impurity

5. Majority carrier = electrons 5. Majority carrier = holes

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Minority carrier = holes Minority carrier= electrons

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6. The conductivity increases with 6. The electrical conductivity

doping more doping leads to depends on level of doping more
more Donor impurities hence doping→ more acceptor impurities
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more free electrons →more holes depending on

temperature
Effect of temperature on semiconductor
(i) At absolute zero (-273°C)
In a pure semiconductor no free electrons are available at absolute

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zero temperature as the valence electrons are tightly bound in through
covalent bonding i.e. the valence band is full and conduction band is
empty if in this state a semiconductor crystal is connected with some

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external battery no current flows
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(ii) Above absolute zero

If the temperature of Crystal is raised above zero few covalent bonds
within the Crystal are broken due to thermal energy supplied thus few
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electrons are available and they jump from Valence band to

conduction band crossing the forbidden gap and electron leaving the
valence band leaves behind an empty space which can accept an
electron this empty space is called a hole and is regarded as positive
charge
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● Effect of temperature on intrinsic semiconductor

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An intrinsic semiconductor behaves more or less as an insulator at
room temperature; the density of electrons / holes in an intrinsic
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semiconductor at room temperature is about 2 x1019 per m3.

● Effect of temperature on extrinsic semiconductor

An extrinsic semiconductor behaves as a very good conductor even at

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room temperature due to extra electrons or holes donated by impurity

atoms. If the temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor is raised there
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is no increase in the majority carrier however due to thermal energy,

concentration of minority carrier increases and the temperature is
called ‘critical temperature’ and it behaves more or less as an intrinsic
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semiconductor.