1 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

The device in which there is a controlled motion of electron through vacuum, gases or
through solids is called electronic devices.
The branch of electronics which deals with vacuum or gas filled devices like diode, triode,
tetrode and pentode is called tube electronics.
The branch of electronics which deals with semiconductor devices is called solid state
electronics.

Band theory of solid:

Band theory solid is the accurate method of classification of solids.
Electrons of each isolated atom have discrete energy levels. When two similar atoms are brought
closer, then there is an interaction between the valence electrons of these two atoms. As a result
the energy level splits into two slightly different energy levels. The atoms in the solid are so
close to each other, that the energy level produced after splitting will appear as a continuous.
These closely spaced energy level forms energy band. This is the basis of Band theory of solid.
The energy band which is completely filled at zero Kelvin is called valance Band.
The energy band with highest energy is called conduction band. The gap between valence band
and conduction band is called band gap or Energy gap or Forbidden energy band.

Valence band:
The energy band which is completely filled with electrons at zero Kelvin is called valence band.
Note: In an atom, the valence band has electrons of highest energy.
Conduction Band:
The highest energy band which is partially filled at room temperature but completely empty at
zero kelvin is called conduction band.
Forbidden band : The separation between valance energy band and conduction energy band is
known as forbidden energy band.
Note: No electrons are found in forbidden band.
Classification of solids :
On the basis of band theory of solids, the solids are classified into,
1) Conductors 2) Semiconductors & 3) Insulator.
Conductors:
Solids in which the valance band and conduction band overlap on each other are called
conductors.
Conductors are the substances, whose electrical resistivity is very low
2 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Ex: Aluminum, copper etc.,

Semi conductors:
Solids in which valance band and conduction band are separated by a small energy gap are called
semiconductors.

Note: In semiconductor valance band is completely filled and conduction band is completely
empty.
Example: 1) Germanium E.G = 0.7 e V at 0o K
2) Silicon E.G = 1.1 e V at 0o K

3) Electrical resistivity of semiconductor vary as

Insulators:
Solids in which valence band and conduction band are separated by a wide energy gap are called
insulators.

Insulators are the substances whose electrical resistivity is very high

Example: Diamond.
Germanium as a semiconductor :
Germanium is a tetravalent crystal, it has four valence electrons.
Therefore at absolute temperature all the four valence electrons
of germaniums atom forms four pairs of covalent bond with
their neighboring atoms hence no valence electrons is free
and germanium acts as insulator. But at a temperature greater
than the absolute zero valence electron become free due to the
rupture of covalent bond These electrons are utilized for
conduction Therefore the germanium acts as conductor.
In this way germanium acts as semiconductor.
3 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Holes:
When electrons become free due to the rupture of covalent band, they leave behind positively
charged vacancies. These vacancies are called holes.
Holes move opposite to the direction electrons. Therefore they are taken as positive
charges carries.
Conduction is not possible in a pure semiconductor :
In a pure semiconductor always equal number of electrons and holes are produced therefore after
recombination no electrons or no holes will be left free for conduction. Hence conduction is not
possible in a pure semiconductor. Pure semiconductor cannot be used for semi conducting devices.
Doping :-
Doping is the process of adding calculated quantity of impurity to a pure semiconductor.
The impurity added is called dopant and the resulting semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor.
Types of semiconductor:
Semiconductor are of two types, they are,
1) Intrinsic semiconductor or pure semiconductor:-
A pure semi conductor in which consists of equal number of holes and electrons is called
as intrinsic semiconductor.
Note 1.Conductivity is very less in pure semiconductor.
2) Extrinsic semiconductor:-
The semiconductor which conducts due to impurities added to it is called Extrinsic
semiconductor. It is an impure semiconductor.

Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor

1.It is a pure semiconductor 1. It is an impure semiconductor

2.Equal number of holes and
electron are present
3.Conductivity is very less in
this semiconductor
4.Electrical conductivity in this
semiconductor depends on
temperature.
2. Holes number and electron number
is not equal
3.Conductivity in this semiconductor
is high.
4. Electrical conductivity in this semicoductor
depends on temperature and impurity added.

Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types, they are,

1. n – type semiconductor.
2. p – type semiconductor.

n – type semiconductor :
4 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

A pure semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity, is called

n – type semiconductor.
Example : [impurity added]
Phosphorous [P] ,Arsenic [Ar] ,Antimony, Bismuth.
Here each impurity atom has five valence electrons,
four of them are utilized for bonding with neighboring
Germanium atoms and the 5th one is loosely bound.
This loosely bound electrons can be made free very
easily and it does not create any hole, also equal number
of electrons and holes are produced due to the rupture of covalent bonds at temperature greater
than the absolute zero. Consequently electrons becomes majority charge carries and holes becomes
minority charge carriers.

p – type semiconductor :

A pure semiconductor doped with a trivalent impurity is called

p – type semiconductor.
Example : [impurity added] Aluminium [Al] Boron Gallium,
Indium.
Here each impurity atom has three valence electrons hence
it needs one electron for bonding. Therefore it takes one
electron from a near by semiconductor atom and create
hole in that atom, also equal number of electrons holes are
produced due to the rupture of bonds at a temperature
greater than the absolute zero. Consequently electron
becomes minority charge carries and hole becomes majority charge carries.

Note:- 1.When a pure semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity, each impurity
atom donates one surplus electron and hence the impurity is called donor impurity.

2.When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity, each impurity atom
accepts one electron for bonding and hence the impurity. is called acceptor impurity.

Difference between n-type and p-type semiconductor

n - type semiconductors p - type semiconductor

1. Doped with pentavalent impurity. 1. Doped with Trivalent impurity.

2. Electrons are majority charge carriers 2. Holes are majority charge Carriers.
3. Majority Charge carriers moves in 3. Majority Charge carries moves in
conduction band valence band
5 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

4. Type of impurity added is donor 4. Type of impurity added is acceptor

Ex : Phosphorus, Arsenic Ex : Boron, Indium

5. Number of valence electron of impurity 5. Number of valence electron of impurity

atom is five. atom is three.
6. Holes are minority charge carriers 6. Electrons are minority charge carriers

p-n Junction :

A junction formed between p – type materials and n – type material is

called p-n junction. It is obtained by doping a trivalent impurity at one end and pentavalent
impurity at opposite end of a semiconductor.
When a p-n junction is formed there will be a density gradient of charge carries across the junction.
Hole diffuse from p- region to n – region and electrons diffuse from n – region to p –
region. Therefore positive charges are built up on the n – region and a negative charges are built
up in p – region at the junction. This develops a potential difference at the junction and this
potential difference is called junction potential difference or barrier potential. The junction P.d is
the order of 0.1 to 0.3V.

This junction potential difference opposes the motion of charges from one region to another.
At the junction a region which is completely depleted of mobile charge carries is formed which
is called depletion region.
Note :-
1. The thickness of depletion region is of order of 10-6 m.
2. When no external voltage is applied across the junction then the p – n junction is said
to be unbiased.
6 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

p – n junction under forward bias:

If the p- region is connected to the positive terminal and n – region is connected to the negative
terminal of a battery, the p – n junction is said to be forward biased. When it is forward biased
the applied potential difference opposes the junction potential difference and for the value of
applied potential difference greater than junction potential difference electron in the n-region
and holes in p-region are repelled by the applied voltage and move towards the junction. On
crossing the junction the electrons and holes combine. Therefore forward current will flow due to
diffusion of majority charge carriers. Further a small increase in applied voltage causes large
increase in forward current therefore p-n junction offers a low resistance.
The resistance of the diode in forward bias is defined as the ratio of small change in voltage to

the small change in current

p – n junction under reverse biased:

If the p-region is connected to the negative terminal and n – region is connected to the positive
terminal, then the p-n junction is reverse biased. When pn – junction is reverse biased, the
applied potential difference is in the direction of junction potential difference. The majority
charge carrier in p – region and n-region move away from the junction and also thickness of
depletion layer increases. Therefore for any value of applied potential difference the p –n
junction doesn’t conduct and hence it offers a high resistance.
Note :-
1. A small current will flow in p – n junction under reverse biased condition due to
minority charge carries.
2. It is observed that the p – n junction has the property of conduction only in one
direction.
3.As the reverse voltage is increased a large current results at a particular voltage called
Breakdown Voltage.
Forward characteristics: the graphical representation of variation of applied forward bias
voltage and forward current through the pn junction is called forward characteristics.
7 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Cut in voltage (Vk): In forward bias ,the voltage at which the current begins to conduct rapidly
is called knee voltage.

Rectification :
Rectification is a process of converting AC into DC. The rectifiers are used to convert AC
into DC are diodes.
Diode :
A p – n junction device which conducts in only one direction is called diode. symbolically
diode is represented as follows,

A p–n junction diodes is used as a rectifier. Semiconductor diodes

have the following advantages over diode valves.

• No heater filament is required

• They have long life.
• They are small in size
• They are economical and high efficient
• They consume lesser power.

Half wave Rectifier:

Half wave rectifier is a circuit, which gives output only during one half cycle of the input AC. The
circuit of a typical half wave rectifier is shown in the diagram. It consists of a transformer a diode
D and a load resistance RL. The AC to be rectified is applied to the primary of the transformer.
This induces an AC of same frequency in the secondary of the transformer. During the first half
of the cycle diode D becomes forward biased and conducts but during negative half of the cycle D
becomes reverse biased and does not conducts. Consequently a pulsating DC is obtained as output
and it is measured across the load resistance R L.
Note:
1). The DC value of half wave rectifier output is 1/ times the peak value of output.
Vdc = 1/ V0 = 0.318 V0 .
2). The output frequency of HWR is same as frequency of input AC.
8 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Full wave rectifier:

Full wave rectifier is the circuit , which gives out put during both the half cycle of the input
A.C. The diagram of full wave rectifier is shown. It consists of a center tap transformer, two diodes
D1 and D2 and a load resistance RL. The A.C to be rectified is applied to primary of the transformer.
This induces an A.C of same frequency in the secondary of the transformer. During positive half
cycle of the A.C diode D1 becomes forward biased and D2 becomes reverse biased. Hence only D1
conducts. Thus current flows through the R L during negative half cycle A.C diode D2 becomes
forward biased and D1 becomes reverse biased. Therefore only D2 conducts. This current flows
through RL. Consequently a continuous steady DC is obtained as output.
Note:

1). The O/P frequency of full wave rectifier is twice the frequency of input AC

2). An electronic power supply system convert AC input voltage to an almost perfect DC

o/p voltage includes a rectifier and a filter.

3) AC components present in a DC o/p is filtered by using inductors and capacitors.

4) Maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is 40.6

5) Maximum efficiency of full wave rectifier is 81.2

Zener diode: A properly doped p-n junction formed which may work even in the breakdown
region is called zener diode.

V-I charecterstics of zener diode:

Zener diode consists of heavely doped p –region and n- region.
Because of this, deplition region of zener diode is very thin.
V-I charecterstics of zener diode is as shown in the diagram.
When the applied reverse bias voltage ( V) reaches the breakdown
voltage( VZ) there is a large change in current. After 𝑉𝑍 a large
change in current can be produced for almost constant zener voltage.
This property is used in regulating voltage supply.
9 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

Zener Diode as voltage regulator:

Zener diode as voltage regulator is as shown in the circuit diagram. The unregulated dc voltage is
connected to the zener diode through a series resistance Rs such that the zener diode is reverse
biased. If the input voltage is increased, the current through Rs and Zener diode also increases.
This increases the voltage drop across Rs without any change in the voltage across the Zener
diode. This is because breakdown region. At breakdown the voltage remains constant but current
is not constant. Similarly, if the input voltage is decreased, the current through R s and zener
diode also decreases without any change in the voltage across the Zener diode. Thus any change

in input voltage results in change in voltage drop across Rs witout any change in voltage across
the Zener diode. In this way the Zener diode acts as a voltage regulator.

Optoelectronic Devices:

Threr ae three types of optoelectronic devices they are,

1. Photodiode.
2. Light emmiting diode ( LED )
3. Photovoltic device ( Solar cell)

Photo diode:-
It is an optoelectronic device in which the reverse saturation current increases when light
falls on it.
10 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

Function:- A reverse biased photodiode is as shown in the diagram. When the applied voltage is
less then the break down voltage of the diode, a small current flows in the absence of light, this is
called dark current.

When a light of suitable frequency is incident on the junction, the light photons produces
electron hole pairs as a result current through the circuit increases. The strength of the current
increases with the increases in the intensity of incident light. A photo diode is a fast acting
device. The current through the circuit of photodiode can turn on or off in nanoseconds.

Uses of photo diode:-

1. Photo diodes are used in switching circuits.
2. Photo diodes are used in the measurement of intensity of radiations.
3. These are used in optical communication equipments.
4. These are used in light meters in cameras.
5. These are used in the receivers for remote controls in VCD and Televisions.

Light Emitting diode[LED]:-

LED is heavily doped optoelectronic p-n junction device which emits visible light when
it is forward biased. It is made by using semi conducting compound like gallium arsenide
phosphate.

Consider a LED connected to a DC battery in series with a resistance. When it is forward

biased recombination of electrons and holes takes place. During this process, the electrons jump
from higher energy level to lower energy level. As a result photon are emitted. The wavelength

of emitted Photon is

ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝐸
Where E → energy

Depending on exact combination LED emits different colours.

Uses of LED:

1. LED are used in the manufacture of signal lamps display devices and calculators.
2. LED’s are used as indicators for power on, overload, short circuit etc.
11 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

3. The infrared LED’s are used in remote controller of TVs and VCD etc.
4. Cluster LED’s are used in traffic signals.
5. LED’s are used in calculator and measurement instrument displays like seven
segment displays.
6. LED’s are used as flash light and back Light for LCD screen.
7. LED’s are used at measurement sensors, in mechanical and optical computer mouse.
Note :1. LED operates at low voltage from 1.5 V to 2.5V

2. Gallium arsenide gives infrared radiation.

3. Gallium arsenide phosphate gives Red or yellow colours.

4. Gallium phosphate gives Red or green colours.

5. Gallium nitrate gives blue colour.

Solar Cell:
Principle: When a Solar radiation of suitable frequency is incident on the layer of a
semiconductor, a potential difference is developed. Such cells do not need a battery as the cell it
self generate an emf.

It consists of n-Si grown on p-Si layer by diffusion process. The other side is coated with a metal
and top of n – layer a matalic grid is deposited.
The generation of emf by a solar cell is due to three process.
1. Generation of e-h pairs due to light.
2. Seperation of electron and holes ddue to electric fieldof the depltion region.
3. The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by front contact and holes reaching p-side
collected by back contact.
therefore a potential difference is developed and electric current flows across an external
resistance.
Application of solar cell:

1. Solar cells are used to power electronic devices in satallites and space vehicles.
2. Solar cells are used in calculators.

Transistor: Transistor is a three terminal two junction semi-conducting device whose main
function is amplification. There are two types transistors,
12 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

1. npn-transistor
2. pnp-transistor
npn transistor:
npn transistor is a device in which a narrow thin p – region is sandwiched between two broad n
region.

pnp transistor: pnp transistor is a device in which a thin n - region is held between the two
broad band p- regions.

The narrow region which is held between two broad region is called Base of the transistor
[B], one of the remaining broad region is called Emitter [E] and the other one is called collector
[ C]. Always emitter is heavily doped than the collector.

Working of transistor: -

Consider a npn transistor, in the normal operation of an npn transistor the emitter base junction
is forward biased by connecting a low DC voltage and collector base junction is reverse biased
by connecting a high DC voltage. Because of the emitter base junction is forward biased electrons
move from emitter to base. This produces a current called emitter current [I E]. some electrons
from the emitter combines with holes in the base region. This produces a current called base
current [IB]. Because the base is very thin only a few electrons combine with the holes, the
remaining electrons move towards the collector region and this produces a current called
collector current [IC]. Therefore we can write

𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶
13 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

Here collector current can be controlled by controlling base current. Thus the transistor is a
current controlled device.
Note: 1. Transistor is a current controlled device.
2. Transistor was discovered by John Bardeen , Brattain and Shockley. In 1948.

3. Transistor characteristics:
a) Out put characteristics: The variation of output current with output voltage at
constant input current is called output characteristics.
b)In put characteristic: The variation of input current with input voltage at constant
output voltage is called input characteristics curve.
c) Transfer characteristic: The variation of output current with input current at constant
output voltage is called transfer characteristics.

Note : because transistor has only three terminals any one of them is taken as common.
Therefore we can use transistors in three basic configurations, they are
Transistor configuration :
1. Common emitter(CE) 2.Common base(CB) 3. Common collector(CC).

Note:
Input characteristic :The graphical representation of variation of
base current IB with base emitter voltage VBE at constant
collector emitter voltage is called input characteristics. The slope
of characteristic is determined by the reciprocal of the slope
represent input resistance.
RI =[VBE / IB] VCE

Output characteristic: The graphical representation of

variation of collector current IC with collector emitter voltage
VCE at constant base current IB is called out put
characteristic.
14 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

Transfer characteristic: The graphical representation of variation of collector current I C with

the base current IB at constant collector emitter voltage VCE is known as transfer
characteristic.
Current gain ():
For a transistor the current gain is defined as the ratio of small change in collector current
to the small change in emitter current at constant collector base voltage in common base
mode.
 = (IC / IE) VCB
Current gain ():
For a transistor the current gain is defined as the ratio of small change in collector current
to the small change in base current at constant collector emitter voltage.
 = (IC / IB) VCE
Relation between  and 
We have  = IC / IE
but IE = IC + IB
IC
 =
IC + IB
IC + IB
1 =
IC
1 1 + IB
=
 IC

But IB = 1

IC 

1 1 + 
=
 
 = 

1 + 


Similarly  = 1-

Amplification: Amplification is a process of increasing the magnitude of weak signals by using

transistors.
15 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

npn transistor as an amplifier :

Circuit diagram of transistor amplifier is as shown in the figure. Here the signal which has
to be amplified is applied between base and emitter and amplified signal is taken across the
load resistance . The emitter base junction is forward biased by connecting V BB and collector
base junction is reverse biased by connecting V CC.
The small change in voltage due to input current IB causes a large change in collector current
(output current). This variation of output current IC develops corresponding large change in
output voltage across the load resistance R L. Thus transistor amplifies a weak signal into
large signal output voltage is given by
V 0 = IC X RL
Note: 1.There is phase difference of 1800 between input and output signal.

2.In the amplification process both voltage and current are amplified.

Expression for voltage gain (A): Let  VBE be the change in the input voltage IB be the
change in the base current and Ri be the input resistance.

Then Vi = Ri IB → (1)

Change in output voltage = VO = ICRL

Then, voltage gain

A= Change in out put voltage RL (  = IC/ IB )
=
Change in input voltage Ri

Digital Electronics
16 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

Electronics is broadly classified into two groups .Those are,

1. Analog Electronics :- In this type of electronics data is represented by a continuous

varying signals called analog signals.

Digital Electronics :- Digital Electronics deals with circuits which make use of only two values
of voltages [High or Low] [1 or 0]

Advantages of digital system:

• They are less expensive

• They are accurate.
• Easy to manipulate.
• They are less affected by noise.
• Information storage in easy.

Binary System :- A system which has only two states, is called binary system.
In binary system only two values are used 0 and 1 [low or high].

Each digital or binary number is called Bit.

Boolean Algebra:- George Boole developed an algebra to solve the logic problems. This algebra
is known as Boolean algebra. This algebra allows only two values 0 and 1 [Binary number]
17 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

Note :- Boolean algebra uses three operation on its variables. These are

OR operation represented by [+] sign

AND operation represented by [.] sign

NOT operation represented by [-] bar over a variable

Logic Gates :- A logic gate is a digital electronic circuit which perform logical function.

Logical gate has one or more inputs and only one output. The input as well as output can have
only two states [0 or 1]

Types of Logic gates

There are three basic logic gates, they are

1. OR gate
2. AND gate
3. NOT gate

Note:- Function of logic gate is either defined by truth table [Which shows possible input
combinations and corresponding output] or by Boolean expression.

OR Gate :-
An OR gate is a digital logic circuit whose output is ‘1’ sate if any or all its inputs are in
‘1’ state Symbol of a two input OR gate is as shown below,

Truth table
A B Y = A+B

0 0 0

0 1 1

1 0 1
18 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

1 1 1

Note :-

1.OR gate can be represented by Boolean equation Y = A+B [ read as Y = A or B]

2.OR gate is similar to a circuit which contains a parallel combination of two switches

AND Gate :-
AND gate is a digital Electronics gate whose output is ‘1’ state if and only if all its
inputs are in ‘1’ state.

Symbol of two input AND gate is as shown below,

Truth table
A B Y=A .B

0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Note :-
1. AND gate can be represented by Boolean operation Y = A.B [ A and B]
2. AND gate is t a circuit which contains a series combination of two switches

NOT Gate :- [Inverter]

A NOT gate is a digital logic circuit which has only one input and one output and the
output is always the compliment of the input.
19 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

If the input A is ‘1’ the out put is ‘0’ and if input is ‘0’ and the output is ‘1’. Therefore
NOT gate is an inverter.

Symbol of NOT gate

Truth table

A Y= Ā

0 1

1 0

Note :-
NOT gate is equivalent to the above circuits. When the switch is closed the lamp is off
and when switch is open lamp glows.

NAND gate :-
A NAND gate is a digital logic circuit in which an AND gate is combined to a NOT
gate. The output of NAND gate assume ‘1’ state when all or any of its inputs assume 0 state.

The Boolean equation for a NAND gate is Y = A+B

Symbol of NAND gate

Truth table

A B Y=A.B

0 0 1

0 1 1

1 0 1

1 1 0
20 SEMICONDUCTOR
ELECTRONICS

Note :- NAND gate is called as Universal gate.

NOR gate :- A NOR gate is a digital logic circuit in which OR gate is combined to a NOT gate .
The output of NOR gate assumes ‘1’ state when all of its inputs assume 0 state.

The Boolean equation for a NOR gate is

Y = A+B

Symbol of NOR gate

Truth table
A B Y=A+B

0 0 1

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 0