INTRODUCTION TO SEMICONDUCTORS

Atomic Structure
• Atoms
- the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristic of that element. Each of
the known 109 elements has atoms that are different from atoms of all other elements.
• Protons - positive charged particles
• Electron - negatively charged particles
• Neutrons - uncharged particle
• Electron shells and orbit
- electrons near the nucleus have less energy than
those in more distant from the nucleus correspond to a certain energy level.
- each discrete distance (orbit) from the nucleus corresponds to a certain energy level.
 Atomic Structure
• Shells - orbits where energy bonds are grouped.
- each cell has a fixed maximum number of electron are permissible energy levels
(orbits).
- designated as 1, 2, 3 and K, L , M.
• Valence electrons
- electrons that are in orbits farther from the nucleus have higher energy and are less
tightly the atom than those to the nucleus.
• Ionization
- the process of losing a valence electron when a free electron loses energy and falls
into the outer shell of a neutral atom, the atom becomes a negative ion.
 As you are aware, the atom is
composed
of three basic particles: the
electron, the proton, and the
neutron. In the atomic lattice,
the neutrons and protons
form the nucleus, while the
electrons revolve around
the nucleus in a fixed orbit.

The Bohr models of the two most commonly used semiconductors,

germanium and silicon
 Atomic Structure
• The maximum number of electrons ( ) that can exist in each shell of an atom is a fact of
nature and can be calculated by the formula,

• Valence shell – the outer most shell valence electron.

• Valence electron - electron in valence shell.
• Atomic Number - equals the number of protons in the nucleus, which is the same as the
number of electrons in an electrically balanced (neutral) atom.
• Free Electron – the escaped valence electron. When a free electron loses energy and falls in
the outer shells of a neutral atom, the atom becomes a negative ion.
Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors
• Insulator - a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal conditions.
Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.
Examples: rubber, plastics, glass, mica and quartz.
• Conductor - is a material that easily conducts electric current. The best conductors are single
element materials such as copper, silver, gold & aluminum. A conductive material has many
free electrons.
• Semiconductor - is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability to
conduct electrical current. The most common single-element semiconductors are silicon,
germanium, and carbon. It has 4 valence electrons.
Insulators Conductors

Semiconductors
 Current in Semiconductor
• An intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal at room temperature has sufficient heat (thermal) energy for
some valence electrons to jump the gap from the valence band into the conduction band,
becoming free electrons. Free electrons are also called conduction electrons.

• When an electron jumps to the conduction heat, a vacancy is left in the valence band within the
crystal. This vacancy is called a hole.

• Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy and falls back into a hole
in the valence band.
Energy Bands – when an electron acquires enough additional
energy, it can leave the valence shell, becomes a free electron, and
exist as conduction band

Energy Gap – difference in energy between valence band and

conduction band. Once in conduction band, the electron is free to
move throughout the material
 Energy increases as the distance
from the nucleus increases.

(a) The center silicon atom shares an electron with

each of the four surrounding silicon atoms, creating a
covalent bond with each. The surrounding atoms are (b) Bonding diagram. The red negative
in turn bonded to other atoms. and so on. signs represent the shared valence
electrons.

Silicon and Germanium – common semiconductors

Silicon – most widely used material in diodes, transistors and integrated circuits
Covalent bonds in a silicon crystal.

Energy band diagram for an

unexcited atom in a pure
(intrinsic) silicon crystal. There are
no electrons in the conduction
band.
Conduction Hole and Electrons

• Electron current - one type of current in a semiconductive material.

• Hole current - a current that moves into a nearby hole with little changes in its energy
level, thus leaving another hole where it came from.

• Conduction in the semiconductors is considered to be either the movement of free

electrons in the conduction band or the movement of holes in the valence band, which is
actually the movement of free electrons to nearby atoms, creating hole current in the
opposite direction.
N-type and P-type Semiconductors

• Doping- a process of increasing the number of current carriers by

increasing the addition of impurities to the intrinsic (pure) semiconductive
material.

N-type Semiconductor
- pentavalent impurity atoms are added to increase the number of
conduction-band electrons in intrinsic silicon.
- Pentavalent impurity atoms gives up an electron called donor atom
These atoms with five valence electrons such as arsenic, phosphorus,
bismuth and antimony.
N-type and P-type Semiconductors

• In an n-type material, the electrons are majority carriers and the holes
are the minority carriers.

P-type Semiconductor
-trivalent impurity atoms are added to increase the number of holes in an
intrinsic silicon. Because the trivalent atom can take an electron, it is often
referred to as an acceptor atom.
• In an p-type material, the holes are majority carriers and the electrons
are the minority carriers.
 Pentavalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. An
antimony (Sb) impurity atom is shown in the center. The
extra electron from the Sb atom becomes a free electron.

Trivalent impurity atom in a silicon crystal structure. A boron (B)

impurity atom is shown in the center.
 The Diode
• Diode- a device that conducts current in only one direction.

• PN Junction- the boundary between the regions of n-type and p-type materials.

• Depletion- it is the fact that the near pn junction is depleted of charge carriers(holes and
electrons) due to diffusion across the junction. The depletion region is formed very quickly
and is very thin compared to the n region and p region.

• Barrier Potential- the potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region or
the voltage required to move electrons through the electric field.
 The Diode
P region has many holes
N region has many free electrons

• Barrier Potential @ 25 Degree Celsius:

Silicon- 0.7V
Germanium- 0.3V
• The free electrons in the n region that occupy the upper part of the
conduction band in terms of their energy can easily diffuse across the
junction and temporarily become free electrons in the lower part of the
p-region conduction band.
Depletion Region – region near the pn junction where charge carriers are depleted due to the
diffusion across the junction

Barrier Potential – the potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the
amount of voltage required to move electrons through the electric field

(a) At the instant of junction formation. free electrons in the n
region near the pn junction begin to diffuse across the
junction and fall into holes near the junction in the p region.
For every electron that diffuses across the junction and combines
with a hole, a positive charge is left in the n region and a negative
charge is created in the p region. forming a
barrier potentiaL This action continues until the voltage of the
barrier repels further diffusion.
 Biasing a diode
• Bias- refers to the use of a dc voltage to establish certain operating
conditions for an electronic device.
• Forward Bias-condition that allows the current through the pn junction.

A diode connected for forward bias.

Electron current – flow of free electron

Hole current – effective flow of holes

The electrons give up an amount of energy equivalent to the barrier potential

when they cross the depletion region. The energy loss results in a voltage drop
across the pn junction equal to the barrier potential (0.7V)

Dynamic resistance – internal resistance of the material, very small and usually
neglected
Biasing a diode

• Reverse Bias- is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode.

A diode connected for reverse bias.

A limiting resistor is shown although
it is not important in reverse bias
because there is essentially no
current.

Reverse current - the extremely small current that exists in the

reverse bias after the transition current disappear
A forward-biased diode showing the
flow of majority carriers and the
voltage due to the barrier potential
across the depletion region.

The diode during the short transition

time immediately after reverse-bias
voltage is applied.
Voltage Current Characteristic of a diode

Forward current – current when a forward bias voltage is applied across a diode

(b) Expanded view ofa portion of the curve in part

(a) V-I characteristic curve for forward bias. (a). The dynamic resistance rd decreases as you
move up the curve, as indicated by the decrease in
the value of ∆VF/ ∆IF .
Forward voltage (VF) ≈ Barrier Potential

Dynamic resistance – resistance change as you move along the VI curve

V-I characteristic curve for a

reverse- biased diode.

The complete V-I characteristic curve for a diode.