ENG 6200 - Material Science and Engineering

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Week 7: Advanced Materials: Electronic Materials

Module07: Advanced Materials: Electronic

Materials

Objectives
After completing this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Know the definition of Electronic Materials and its importance
2. List the classification of engineering materials
3. Discuss the properties and applications the electrical engineering
materials

Electronic materials

Electronic materials are the materials used in electrical industries, electronics and
microelectronics, and the substances for the building up of integrated circuits, circuit
boards, packaging materials, communication cables, optical fibres, displays, and various
controlling and monitoring devices.

Electrical And Electronics Engineering Materials (Types & Applications)

Materials are the part of our life and daily works since ancient time. Materials are the
primary part of all things surrounding us. In fact some materials have given the name to
various ages in human history i.e. Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Synthetic Materials Age,
Smart Materials Age. The study of these materials is called the Material Science..

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Material science is associated with the study of composition, structure, characterization,

processing, properties, application and performance of various Engineering materials.

In modern scientific age, many technologies have already been developed and many more
are under continuously development to make the human life easy to live and comfortable.

The existence of such technologies basically depends on the availability of suitable

materials. The performance and quality of each and every engineering product is primarily
governed by the material used to manufacture the product.

Hence engineering materials play an important role in development and success of all
engineering technologies. For a more indepth discussion of electrical engineering materials
and other fundamental electrical concepts.

Engineering Materials

The materials used for manufacturing of engineering products are called e ngineering
materials. These engineering materials are the back bone of all engineering products. The
design, manufacturing, commercialization and performance of any engineering product
basically depends on the material being used for that product i.e. semiconducting materials
are the base of all electronics devices. Similarly the existence of Electrical engineering
machines and equipment completely depends on conducting, insulating and magnetic
materials.
In view of the above to become a successful engineering in any engineering field, it should
have the knowledge of engineering materials of respective field. The research and
development of new engineering material is a continuous process. Many institutions and
laboratories are continuously working on development of new materials to cope up with the
continuous changing demands of industries.

As a result, new emerging materials such as smart materials, high-performance materials

and intelligent materials are continuously coming into picture. These new advance materials
have a great effect on modern age of technology.

Presently the research and development of new materials, to meet the engineering
requirement is also considering the effect of these materials on our environment. i.e. the
radioactive material are very useful for nuclear energy. But the radioactivity due to these
materials have the very adverse effect on our environment. Hence, to make these radioactive
materials environment friendly, the engineers have to make necessary arrangements to stop
the radioactivity by these radioactive materials.
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Classification of Engineering Materials

These engineering materials can be classified based on the branch of engineering as below-

• Mechanical Engineering materials – i.e. Iron, Steel etc.

• Electrical Engineering materials –i.e. Conductors, Semiconductors, Insulators,
Magnetic materials etc.
• Civil Engineering materials – i.e. Cements, Iron, Stones, Sans etc.
• Electronic engineering – i.e. Semiconducting materials

Electrical Engineering Materials

To be a successful Electrical Engineer, engineers should have a deep knowledge of Electrical

Engineering materials. Electrical Engineering material science is associated with the study
of composition, structure, characterization, processing, properties, application and
performance of electrical engineering materials. The existence and success of any electrical
machine or equipment depends on the availability of suitable electrical engineering
materials such as conductors, insulators and magnetic materials etc.

Hence, before designing any electrical machine, engineers should have good knowledge of
properties and applications of electrical engineering materials. The performance of any
electrical equipment is completely governed by the quality of material used for that
equipment. Therefore, to design a good and successful electrical equipment, engineers
should also have the knowledge of factors governing the quality of engineering materials.

Based on the properties and applications the electrical engineering materials can be
categorized as below-
➢ Conductors – i.e. Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminum etc.
➢ Semiconductors – i.e. Germanium, Silicon, GaAs etc.
➢ Insulators – Plastics, Rubbers, Mica, Insulating Papers etc.
➢ Magnetic materials – Iron, Silicon steel, Alnico, ferrites etc.

Electrical Conductor

Electrical conductor is a substance or material that allows electrons to flow atom to atom of
that material with drift velocity in the conduction band against a small resistance offered by
that substance.

Electrical Conductor may be metals, metal alloy, electrolyte or some non metals like graphite
and conductive polymer.

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How a Conductor Conducts Current?

The substance of the electrical conductor atom must have no energy gap between its valence
band and conduction band. The outer electrons in the valence band are loosely attached to
the atom. When an electron gets excited due to electromotive force or thermal effect, it
moves from its valence band to conduction band. Conduction band is the band where this
electron gets its freedom to move anywhere in the conductor. The conductor is formed of
atoms. Thus as a whole, the conduction band is in abundance of electrons.

In other word, it can be said that the metallic bonds are present in the conductors. These
metallic bonds are based on structure of positive metal ions. These structures are
surrounded by electron cloud.

When a potential difference occurs in the conductor across two points, the electrons get
sufficient energy to flow from lower potency to higher potency in this conduction band
against a small resistance offered by this conductor material. Electricity or current flows in
the opposite direction of the flow of the electrons.
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How an Electron Flows through a Conductor?

Electrons do not move or flow in a straight line. In a conductor, the electrons are in to and
fro motion or random velocity i.e. is called Drift Velocity (Vd) or average velocity. Due to this
Drift Velocity, the electrons get collisions every moment with atoms or another electron in
the conduction band of the conductor. Drift velocity is quite small, as there are so many free
electrons. We can estimate the density of free electrons in a conductor, thus we can calculate
the drift velocity for a given current. The larger the density, the lower the velocity required
for a given current.

In the Conductor, flow of the electrons is against the Electric Field (E).

Properties of Conductor

The main properties that should be with a conductor are as follows:

1. A conductor always allows free movement of electrons or ions.

2. The electric field inside a conductor must be zero to permit the electrons or ions to
move through the conductor.
3. Charge density inside a conductor is zero i.e. the positive and negative charges cancel
inside a conductor.
4. As no charge inside the conductor, only free charges can exist only on the surface of a
conductor.
5. The electric field is perpendicular to the surface of that conductor.

Type of the Conductors

Generally conductors can be classified based on Ohmic Response. They are

Ohmic Conductors

This type of conductors always follow Ohm’s Law (V ∝ I)

V vs. I graph gives a straight line always.

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Example

Aluminum, Silver, Copper etc.

Non Ohmic Conductors

This type of conductors never follow the Ohm’s Law (V ∝ I)

V vs. I graph does not give a straight line i.e. non linear graph.

Example

LDR (Light Dependant Resistor), Diode, Filament of Bulb, Thermistors etc.

The examples of conductors are given below

Solid Conductor
Metallic Conductor: Silver, Copper, Aluminum, Gold etc.
Non Metallic Conductor: Graphite
Alloy Conductor: Brass, Bronze etc.
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Liquid Conductor
Metallic Conductor: Mercury
Non Metallic Conductor: Saline Water, Acid Solution etc.
NB:

Copper Conductor is the most common material used for electrical wiring.
Gold Conductor is used for high-quality surface-to-surface contacts.
Silver is the best conductor in the Conductors list.
Impure Water is listed in Conductor List but it has less conductivity.

What is the Charge of a Conductor During Carrying Electricity?

A current carrying conductor at any instance is with zero charge. It is because of at any
instance number of electrons (at drift velocity) is equal to the number of protons in this
conductor. So the net charge is zero.

Suppose a conductor is connected across a battery, i.e. positive end and negative end are
connected with a conductor. Now electrons flow through the conductor from negative end
to positive end of the battery. This flow of electrons is possible until this battery has EMF
producing capability through chemical reaction inside.

At that Situation, is Conductor Positively or Negatively Charged?

Just think that here the conductor is the media through which charges can be passed from
one electrode to another electrode of the battery. The electrons get rid of negative side of the
battery and enter the conduction band of the conductor where already plenty of valence
electrons of conductor atoms are available. The free electrons start journey in drift motion
(towards positive electrode of the battery) from atom to atom in the conduction band. At any
instance each atom holds zero charge because of drift electrons from adjacent atoms fill its
valence band electron gaps and it happens continuously i.e. total number of electrons equal
to the number of protons in the conductor at any moment. Now the rate of change of charge
(q) with respect to time (t) is called current (I),

This rate of change of charge with respect to time occurs. Convention wise, Current (I) flows
in opposite direction of electron flow.

When you remove the conductor from the battery, this conductor does not hold any charge
particle, but EMF remains present across the battery electrodes with positive and negative
polarity with no flow of electron.

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Effect of Temperature on a Conductor

The more effect of temperature, the more vibration in the conductor molecules. This impedes
the electrons to flow, i.e. the electrons get obstruction to flow smoothly through the
conductor. Thus conductivity decreases gradually with increase the temperature.

Again, raise of temperature break some bonds in the conductor molecules and release some
electrons. These electrons are less in number. As a whole, it can be said that increase in the
temperature opposition against the drifting electron increases in the conductor.

Semiconductor Theory: Definition & Fundamentals

Engineers can classify materials by the energy gap between their valence band and the
conduction band. The valence band is the band consisting of the valence electron, and the
conduction band remains empty. Conduction takes place when an electron jumps from
valence band to conduction band, and the gap between these two bands is forbidden energy
gap.

A wider the gap between the valence and conduction bands, higher the energy it requires for
shifting an electron from valence band to the conduction band. In the case of conductors, this
energy gap is absent or in other words conduction band, and valence band overlaps each
other. Thus, electron requires minimum energy to jump from valence band. The typical
examples of conductors are Silver, Copper, and Aluminium. In insulators, this gap is vast.
Therefore, it requires a significant amount of energy to shift an electron from valence to
conduction band. Thus, insulators are poor conductors of electricity. Mica and Ceramic are
the well-known examples of insulation material. Semiconductors, on the other hand, have an
energy gap which is in between that of conductors and insulators.

This gap is typically more or less 1 eV, and thus, one electron requires energy more than
conductors but less than insulating materials for shifting valence band to conduction band.
At low temperature there are very less number of electrons in conduction band in a
semiconductor crystal but when the temperature is increased more and more electrons get
sufficient energy to migrate from valence band to conduction band. Because of that, they
don’t conduct electricity at low temperature but as the temperature increases the
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conductivity increases. The most typical examples of the semiconductors are silicon and
germanium.

Definition of Semiconductor
Thus, the definition of semiconductor can be as follows.
The materials that are neither conductor nor insulator with energy gap of about 1 eV
(electron volt) are called semiconductors.
Most common materials commercially used as semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and
silicon (Si) because of their property to withstand high temperature. That means there will
be no significant change in energy gap with changing temperature.

The relation between energy gap and absolute temperature for Si and Ge are given as,

Where, T = absolute temperature in oK

Assuming room temperature to be 300oK,

At room temperature resistivity of semiconductor is in between insulators and conductors.

Semiconductors show negative temperature coefficient of resistivity that means its
resistance decreases with increase in temperature. Both Si and Ge are elements of IV group,
i.e. both elements have four valence electrons. Both form the covalent bond with the
neighboring atom. At absolute zero temperature both behave like an insulator, i.e. the
valence band is full while conduction band is empty but as the temperature is raised more
and more covalent bonds break and electrons are set free and jump to the conduction band.

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In the above energy band diagrams of a semiconductor. CB is the conduction band, and VB is
the valence band. At 0oK, the VB is full with all the valence electrons.

Intrinsic Semiconductors
As per theory of semiconductor, semiconductor in its pure form is called as intrinsic
semiconductor. In pure semiconductor number of electrons (n) is equal to number of holes
(p) and thus conductivity is very low as valence electrons are covalent bonded. In this case
we write n = p = ni, where ni is called the intrinsic concentration. It can be shown that n i
can be written

Where, n0 is a constant, T is the absolute temperature, VG is the semiconductor band gap

voltage, and VT is the thermal voltage.

The thermal voltage is related to the temperature by VT = kT/q

Where, k is the Boltzmann constant (k = 1.381 × 10 − 23 J/K).

In intrinsic semiconductors conductivity (σ) is determined by both electrons (σe) and holes
(σh) and depends on the carrier density.
σe = neμe, σh = peμh
Conductivity,
Where n, p = numbers of electrons and holes respectively.
μh, μe = mobility of free holes and electrons respectively
N=n=p
e = charge on carrier

Extrinsic Semiconductors
As per theory of semiconductor, impure semiconductors are called extrinsic semiconductors.
Extrinsic semiconductor is formed by adding a small amount of impurity. Depending on the
type of impurity added we have two types of semiconductors: N-type and P-type
semiconductors. In 100 million parts of semiconductor one part of impurity is added.

N type Semiconductor
In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are electrons and minority carriers are
holes. N – type semiconductor is formed by adding pentavalent (five valence electrons)
impurity in pure semiconductor crystal, e.g. P. As, Sb.

Four of the five valence electron of pentavalent impurity forms covalent bond with Si atom
and the remaining electron is free to move anywhere within the crystal. Pentavalent
impurity donates electron to Si that’s why N-type impurity atoms are known as donor
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atoms. This enhances the conductivity of pure Si. Majority carriers are electrons therefore
conductivitry is due to these electrons only and is given by, σ = neμe

P type Semiconductors
In this type of semiconductor majority carriers are holes, and minority carriers
are electrons. The p-type semiconductor is formed by adding trivalent ( three
valence electrons) impurity in a pure semiconductor crystal, e.g. B, Al Ba.

Three of the four valence electron of tetravalent impurity forms covalent bonds
with Si atoms. The phenomenon creates a space which we refer to a hole. When
the temperature rises an electron from another covalent bond jumps to fill this
space. Hence, a hole gets created behind. In this way conduction takes place. P-
type impurity accepts electrons and is called acceptor atom. Majority carriers are
holes, and therefore conductivity is due to these holes only and is given by,
σ = neμh

Electrical Insulator | Insulating Material | Porcelain Glass Polymer Insulator

Electrical Insulator must be used in electrical system to prevent unwanted flow of current to
the earth from its supporting points. The insulator plays a vital role in electrical system.
Electrical Insulator is a very high resistive path through which practically no current can
flow. In transmission and distribution system, the overhead conductors are generally
supported by supporting towers or poles. The towers and poles both are properly grounded.
So there must be insulator between tower or pole body and current carrying conductors to
prevent the flow of current from conductor to earth through the grounded supporting
towers or poles.

Insulating Material
The main cause of failure of overhead line insulator, is flash over, occurs in between line and
earth during abnormal over voltage in the system. During this flash over, the huge heat
produced by arcing, causes puncher in insulator body. Viewing this phenomenon the
materials used for electrical insulator, has to posses some specific properties.

Properties of Insulating Material

The materials generally used for insulating purpose is called insulating material. For
successful utilization, this material should have some specific properties as listed below-
1. It must be mechanically strong enough to carry tension and weight of conductors.
2. It must have very high dielectric strength to withstand the voltage stresses in High
Voltage system.

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3. It must possesses high Insulation Resistance to prevent leakage current to the earth.
4. The insulating material must be free from unwanted impurities.
5. It should not be porous.
6. There must not be any entrance on the surface of electrical insulator so that the
moisture or gases can enter in it.
7. There physical as well as electrical properties must be less effected by changing
temperature.

Porcelain Insulator
Porcelain in most commonly used material for over head insulator in present days. The
porcelain is aluminium silicate. The aluminium silicate is mixed with plastic kaolin, feldspar
and quartz to obtain final hard and glazed porcelain insulator material. The surface of the
insulator should be glazed enough so that water should not be traced on it. Porcelain also
should be free from porosity since porosity is the main cause of deterioration of its dielectric
property. It must also be free from any impurity and air bubble inside the material which
may affect the insulator properties.

Properties of Porcelain Insulator

Property Value(Approximate)

Dielectric Straingth 60 KV / cm

Compressive Strength 70,000 Kg / cm2

Tensile Strength 500 Kg / cm2

Glass Insulator
Now days glass insulator has become popular in transmission and distribution system.
Annealed tough glass is used for insulating purpose. Glass insulator has numbers of
advantages over conventional porcelain insulator.
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Advantages of Glass Insulator

1. It has very high dielectric strength compared to porcelain.

2. Its resistivity is also very high.
3. It has low coefficient of thermal expansion.
4. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5. As it is transparent in nature the is not heated up in sunlight as porcelain.
6. The impurities and air bubble can be easily detected inside the glass insulator
body because of its transparency.
7. Glass has very long service life as because mechanical and electrical properties of
glass do not be affected by ageing.
8. After all, glass is cheaper than porcelain.

Disadvantages of Glass Insulator

1. Moisture can easily condensed on glass surface and hence air dust will be
deposited on the wed glass surface which will provide path to the leakage current
of the system.
2. For higher voltage glass can not be cast in irregular shapes since due to irregular
cooling internal cooling internal strains are caused.

Properties of Glass Insulator

Property Value(Approximate)

Dielectric Straingth 140 KV / cm

Compressive Strength 10,000 Kg / cm2

Tensile Strength 35,000 Kg / cm2

Polymer Insulator

In a polymer insulator has two parts, one is glass fiber reinforced epoxy resin rod shaped
core and other is silicone rubber or EPDM (Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer) made
weather sheds. Rod shaped core is covered by weather sheds. Weather sheds protect the
insulator core from outside environment. As it is made of two parts, core and weather sheds,

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polymer insulator is also called composite insulator. The rod shaped core is fixed with Hop
dip galvanized cast steel made end fittings in both sides.

Advantages of Polymer Insulator

1. It is very light weight compared to porcelain and glass insulator.

2. As the composite insulator is flexible the chance of breakage becomes minimum.
3. Because of lighter in weight and smaller in size, this insulator has lower installation
cost.
4. It has higher tensile strength compared to porcelain insulator.
5. Its performance is better particularly in polluted areas.
6. Due to lighter weight polymer insulator imposes less load to the supporting structure.
7. Less cleaning is required due to hydrophobic nature of the insulator.

Disadvantages of Polymer Insulator

1. Moisture may enter in the core if there is any unwanted gap between core and
weather sheds. This may cause electrical failure of the insulator.
2. Over crimping in end fittings may result to cracks in the core which leads to
mechanical failure of polymer insulator.
3. In addition to these, some other disadvantages might be experienced. Let us give a
practical example where many difficulties are faced in maintaining a distribution
network in Victoria Australia due to polymeric insulator.

There are many Cockatoos, Galahs and Parrots in that area of Australia, which love to chew
on polymeric strain insulators. Here, the 22 KV network has many of polymeric strain
insulators installed and now after a few years of installing polymeric strain insulators, the
authority is now replacing many of them back with Glass disc insulators.
Another disadvantage is that they have had post type polymeric insulators melt and bend in
bush fire areas. They have a concrete pole and a steel cross arm that survives a bush fire,
however the polymers in some cases fail. This would not be the case with glass or porcelain
insulators.

They have also had polymeric insulators fail in areas close to the ocean coastline where there
are high salt levels in the air.
1. Subject to bird attack by Parrots, Cockatoos and Galahs.
2. Not resilient to bushfire temperatures.
3. Not recommended for location near surf beaches due to salt spray.

The information is contributed by Robert Lancaster of Australian Electricity Supply Industry

Types of Insulator
There are mainly three types of insulator likewise
1. Pin Insulator
2. Suspension Insulator
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3. Stray Insulator
In addition to that there are other two types of electrical insulator available mainly for low
voltage application, e.i. stay insulator and shackle insulator.

Magnetic Field and Importance of Magnetic Field

The magnetic field is a field, produced by electric charges in motion. It is a field of force
causing a force on material like iron when placed in the vicinity of the field. Magnetic field
does not require any medium to propagate; it can propagate even in a vacuum. Also, the
energy storing capacity of the magnetic field is greater than the electric field, this
distinguishes magnetic field from the electric field, and therefore it is utilised in almost every
electromechanical devices like transformers, motors and generators. Earth also has its
natural magnetism which protects it from solar waves from the sun. Further, it provides an
operating field for a magnetic compass to operate.
Permanent magnets have their own magnetism, and they are made up of ferromagnetic
material like iron or nickel or alnico alloys, while electromagnets are coils which produce the
magnetic field when an electric current passes through the coil.

For example, a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around the conductor,
whose direction is determined by Right-Hand Screw Rule and the strength of field can be
varied in accordance with the amount of current flowing in the conductor around the coil.
Electromagnets are utilized in various industries for various production and manufacturing
processes. The magnetic field has both North pole and a South pole. Monopole does not exist
for a magnetic field, unlike electric field where a charge can be isolated. The field line forms
a closed loop, as it emanates from North and terminates to South outside a magnet and from
south pole to north pole inside a magnet.

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At any point on the field, it has both magnitude and direction, so it is represented by a vector.
Magnetic field finds its application in almost every electromechanical devices like electric
motors and generators. When a current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a torque. This principle of operation is utilised in electric motor where magnetic
torque is produced which exerts a rotating torque on the rotor while in case of generators
magnetic field provides a medium for energy exchange between stator and rotor via
induction principle. In case of a 3 phase motor, a rotating magnetic field is produced by the
3 phase windings displaced 120 degrees in space. A rotating magnetic field rotates with
synchronous speed in the air gap of machines which is required for synchronous motor and
induction motors to operate. In order to provide a magnetic medium, machine draws
magnetizing current which degrades the power factor of the system. Poor power factor
increases the burden on the power system components like transformer and generators, but
it is an equally essential component for almost every electromechanical device to operate.

Supplementary Materials
Books and Journals
1. Callister, William D., JR.; Rethwisch, David G. (2015). Materials science and engineering si
version.Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
2. Fundamentals of Radiation Materials Science: Metals and Alloys. GARY S. WAS - 2016
3. Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering: An Integrated Approach, 5th
Edition.William D.Callister, David G. Rethwisch - 2016
4. Materials Science and Engineering of Carbon: Characterization.Michio Inagaki, Feiyu
Kang - 2016
5. Materials Processing Fundamentals.Lifeng Zhang, Antoine Allanore, Cong Wang - 2016
6. Materials Processing Fundamentals.Lifeng Zhang, Antoine Allanore, Cong Wang - 2016
7. Glass Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Properties and Applications.Basudeb Karmakar, Klaus
Rademann,Andrey Stepanov - 2016
8. Materials Science and Technology of Optical Fabrication. Tayyab I. Suratwala - 2018
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. Electrical Engineering Materials; https://www.electrical4u.com/electrical-
engineering-materials/;April 11, 2020
2. Electronic Material; https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-
science/electronic-materials; April 11,2020
3. Electronic Materials Growth,Characterization and Process;
https://www.nrl.navy.mil/estd/research-highlights/electronic-materials; April
11,2020
4. Semiconductors; https://www.britannica.com/science/semiconductor;April 11,2020