PN Junction and Diode

1
 Semiconductor
• Semiconductor - materials with characteristics which fall
between insulator and conductors.
– It will not pass current as readily as a conductor nor will it block
current as effectively as an insulator.
– E.g. Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si) and Carbon (C).

• These materials have atomic structures which may be easily

altered to obtain specific electrical characteristics.

2
• The bandgap energy largely determines the electrical
properties of solids:
• EG ≥ 3eV Insulator
• EG ≥ 0.1 - 3eV Semiconductor
• EG = 0 Conductor

3
 Conduction in intrinsic (pure)
semiconductor
(1) Effect of Temperature
• The electrical characteristic of pure semiconductor material is highly
dependent upon temperature.
• At extremely low temperature, the valence electrons are held tightly
to their parent atoms.
– Therefore, the material cannot support current flow at this temperature.
– Pure Ge and Si crystal function like an insulator.

• As the temperature of a Ge and Si crystal is increased, the valence

electrons became agitated.
– Some with more energy will occasionally break away from the covalent bonds.
– They will be free to drift from one atom to the next in a random manner.
– These free moving electrons are able to support a small amount of electrical
current if a voltage is applied to the semiconductor.
– If they are exposed to extremely high temperature, they conduct as well as an
ordinary conductor.
4
(2) Electron-Hole Pair Generation
• When an electron receives enough energy, it breaks away from
a covalent bond, a vacancy called hole exist in the bond.
– A hole represents the absence of an electron.
– Since electron has a negative charge, the hole has the characteristics of
a positively charged particle.
– Each corresponding free electron and hole generated is referred to as an
electron-hole pair.
• A hole will exerts an attraction force on an electron and
therefore, will be filled by a nearby passing electron.
– This process is known as recombination and it causes a continued loss
of holes and free electrons.
• At any given temperature, the rate of recombination of
electron-hole pairs is always equal to the generation of new
electron-hole pairs so that the total number of free electrons
and holes is constant.

5
 Extrinsic (impure) semiconductor
• Pure semiconductor materials contain only a small
number of electrons and holes at room temperature.
• Impurities (pentavalent or trivalent materials) are added
to the semiconductor material through doping to
increase the conductivity of semiconductor.
• Doping creates two types of extrinsic semiconductor: n-
type and p-type.

6
 (1) n–type Semiconductor
• A pure semiconductor material doped with a pentavalent
materials.
– E.g. arsenic (As)
– the arsenic atom will replace one of the Ge or Si atoms and share 4 of
its valence electrons with adjacent atoms in a covalent bond.
– However, its 5th valence electron is loosely attached to the nucleus of
the arsenic atom and can be easily set free.
Note: no holes are generated when the 5th electron leaves the
valence band.

• Since the As atom is called a donor atom.

– There are many donor atoms within the semiconductor material, there
are also many additional free electrons within the material.

– Due to the presence of these extra electrons in the doped Ge and Si

crystal, the material is called an n-type semiconductor.
7
• If a voltage is applied to an n–type semiconductor, the free
electrons will flow towards the positive terminal of the battery.
• The free electrons in the n–type come from two sources:
– Donor atoms (only electrons are generated, not electron-hole pairs) due
to doping process.
– Thermally generated electron-hole pairs by breaking of covalent bond.

• The holes move towards the negative terminal.

8
• At normal room temperature the number of free electrons
provided by the donor atom will greatly exceed the number
of holes and electrons that are produced by the breaking of
covalent bonds.

• Therefore the total number of electrons flowing in n–type

semiconductor greatly exceeds the number of holes.
– Hence, electrons are called the majority carriers while holes are
called minority carriers.

• The material is still electrically neutral.

9
 (2) p–type Semiconductor
• A pure semiconductor material added with a trivalent material.
– E.g. Aluminium (Al).
– The Al atom shared its electron with 3 adjacent atoms in the crystal
structure but cannot share with the 4th adjacent atom.
– This creates a hole in the covalent bond.
– The trivalent atom can take/accept an electron, it is also called acceptor
atom.
– A hole created by this doping process is not accompanied by a free
electron.

10
• Since many Al atoms are added, a large number of holes
will be present in the material.
– Holes can be thought of as positive charges because the absence of
an electron leaves a net positive charge on the atom.
– Holes are the majority carriers in p–type material.
– There are a few free electrons that are created when electron-pairs
are thermally generated.
– Electrons in p–type material are called minority carriers.

11
 The pn – junction
• A pn–junction is formed at
the boundary between the
two regions (n–type and p–
type semiconductors)
– A diode is created.

– It is the electrical
characteristics of the junction
rather than the semiconductor
sample material that
determines the electrical
behavior of the entire
structure.

12
 (1) Formation of the Space-Charge
Region (Depletion Region)
• At the instant the pn–junction is formed, the electrons near
the junction in the n region diffuse (because of high
concentration) across the junction into the p region and
combine with the holes near the junction.

13
• Electrons leaving the n region leaves a layer of donor positive ions.

• When these electrons combine with the holes in the p region, a layer of
acceptor negative ions is formed.

• This region is known as space-charge region or depletion region. It is

depleted of charge carriers.

• The main purpose of a depletion region is to control current flow.

14
 (2) Barrier Potential
• In the depletion region, the forces between the negative ions
and positive ions form an electric field.
• This electric field prevents the majority carriers from one side
to cross over to the other side.
• Therefore, there is no net current flow in pn device.
– The potential difference across the electric field is known as barrier
potential.
– It is the amount of voltage required by the majority carriers to get
through the electric field. Hence, we need to apply a voltage source
across the pn junction that is greater than the barrier potential so that
electrons from n region can flow through the device.

15
• The barrier potential depends on
– the type of semiconductor material,
– amount of doping and
– temperature.

• The minority carriers are aided by the electric field to cross the
junction.
– For example, minority carriers in the p region, that is, the electrons
which are near to the depletion region will be swept across by the
electric field to the n region and become the majority carrier there.

• By controlling the width of the depletion layer, we are able to

control the resistance of the pn junction and thus the amount of
current that can pass through the device.
– Bias is a potential applied to a pn junction to control the width of the
depletion layer.

16
 (1) Forward Bias
• A pn–junction is forward biased when the n–type is more
negative than the p–type.

• There are two ways in which a pn–junction can be forward

biased:

17
• In forward bias mode and when VF >
barrier potential, the pn–junction
begins to conduct.

• The depletion region becomes

narrower.

• The majority carriers, for example,

electrons, from n side cross the pn–
junction and move into the p side
with little opposition and conduction
occurs. IF

• There is always a large majority of

electrons on the n side and holes on
the p side because the battery
replenishes them.

18
• Once a pn–junction begins to conduct, it provides a slight
opposition to current.
• This is the bulk resistance: it is the combined resistance of the
n–type and p–type in forward–biased mode.
R B = R p + Rn

• Since RB is extremely low (typically, 25W or less), very little

voltage drop across this resistance.
• Therefore, IR drop across RB is usually ignored in circuit 19
calculations.
• When a forward–biased pn–junction begins to conduct, the
forward voltage, VF across the junction is slightly greater
than the barrier potential.

• When the diode conducts, VF are approximated as

VF = 0.7V for Si
VF = 0.3V for Ge

• IF is the forward current.

• VF is the voltage drop across the diode.

20
 (2) Reverse Bias
• A pn–junction is reverse biased when the n–type is more
positive than the p–type.

• There are two ways in which a pn–junction can be reverse

biased:

21
• Reverse bias and its effects are
illustrated in the following
figures.
• Electrons in the n–type will
head toward the positive
terminal of the source.
– This will further deplete the
electrons in the n–type near the
junction.

• The same principle applies to

the holes in p–type.
• The depletion layer is then
widened.
• This increases the resistance of
the junction and conduction
drops to near zero.
22
• The increase in the depletion width is extremely conductive to
the minority carriers.
• The electrons in the p–type which are near to the depletion
region will be swept across the junction by the electric field
into the n region.
• Therefore, there is a current flow - the reverse current, IR.
• It is very small compare to IF.

• IR depends on temperature because the electron-hole pairs

(minority carriers) are generated from the breaking of covalent
bond which is temperature-dependant

23
 THE DIODE
• There are various types of diode but the ones we will be
studying are the pn–junction diode (normally, we just call
it “diode”) and zener diode.

• Diode conducts current in one direction (when it is in

forward bias mode) and blocks current in the other
direction (when it is in reverse bias mode).

• The symbol is shown here.

24
 DIODE MODELS
• A model is a representation of a component.

• It is used to show the characteristics of the component

when the component is used in a particular application.

• The diode has 3 models. Each has its particular use in a

particular application.
– The ideal diode model.
– The practical diode model.
– The complete diode model.

25
 (1) The Ideal Diode Model
• This model represents the diode as a switch:
– close (forward bias) or open (reverse bias).

• When the diode is forward bias (closed switch), we can say

that:
– The diode has no resistance: it acts as a short circuit.
– There is no voltage drop across the diode.

• When the diode is reverse bias (opened switch), we can

say that:
– The diode has infinite resistance; therefore, it acts as an open
circuit.
– The applied voltage drops across the diode terminals.

26
• Normally, the ideal
model of the diode
is used in the initial
stages of circuit
troubleshooting.
– We are only
interested in
whether the diode is
acting as a one-way
conductor.

– If it is not, then the

diode is faulty and
needs to be
replaced.
27
 Example

Solution
Since D1 is reverse biased, it acts as an open circuit.
Therefore,
IT = 0A
VD1 = VS
VR1 = 0A
28
 Example

Solution
Since D1 is forward biased, it acts as a short circuit.
Therefore,
VD1 = 0V

VR1 = 5V
IT = VR1 / R1 = 5 / 1000 = 5mA
29
 (2) The Practical Diode Model
• It is a bit more complex than the ideal diode model.

• The model includes characteristics

– forward voltage VF,
– peak reverse voltage VRRM,
– average forward current IO,
– forward power dissipation PD(max))
which are useful for mathematical analysis to help
determine which diode will be used for a given circuit.

30
• VF is the voltage drop across the diode.
• The following figures show the diode characteristics curve.

knee voltage

31
• IF suddenly increases when the voltage across the diode VF ³
VK (knee voltage).
– Knee voltage is a general term to describe the situation where current
suddenly increase/decrease.
VK » 0.7 V (Si)

– In an actual circuit, VK = 0.7V to 1.1V, depending on the current

through the device.

– As long as the diode is conducting, even if the applied voltage VS is

increased further, the voltage drop across the diode will remain VF =
VK .

32
 Example

Solution
D1 is forward biased. It acts as a short circuit.
VD1 = 0.7V
VR1 = 5 – 0.7 = 4.3V

IT = VR1 / R1
= 4.3 / 1000
= 4.3mA
33
 Peak Reverse Voltage VRRM
• When the diode is reverse-biased, the
maximum reverse voltage that will
not force the diode to conduct is
called VRRM.
• When VRRM is exceeded, the depletion
layer breaks down and the diode
conducts in the reverse direction.
– Any insulator will conduct if an applied
voltage is high enough to cause the
insulator to break down.

• The diode conducts in the reverse

direction when the VR > VRRM.
Normally, when a diode is forced to
conduct in the reverse direction, the
device is destroyed.
34
• The reverse current in this case is known as the avalanche
current.
• Avalanche breakdown is the result of collisions of high –
energy minority carriers with atoms to break the covalent
bond.
– When the reverse bias is large enough, some of the minority carriers
will gain sufficient energy and when these carriers collide with the
atoms, covalent bonds are broken.
– So, more electron – hole pairs are generated and will gain high –
energy (due to the large reverse bias) to cause further broken covalent
bonds.
– As the process is repeated, the saturation current quickly increases and
breakdown takes place.

• In practice, the VRRM should at least be 20% greater than the

maximum voltage that the diode is expected to block.
– The reason for 20% is because in practical applications, there will be
minor variations in the source amplitude.

35
 Example
During the negative alternation of the input, the peak value Vpk (50
V) is dropped across the reverse-biased diode.

Solution
VRRM = 1.2 VR(pk)
= (1.2) (50)
= 60V (minimum)

The VRRM rating for D1 must be 60 V or greater to ensure that

the component isn’t damaged by the voltage source.

36
 Average Forward Current IO
• This rating indicates the maximum allowable value of dc
forward current.

• Again, IO must be taken as 20% greater than the forward

current IF.

37
 Example
Determine the minimum average forward
current rating that would be required for
the diode shown.
Solution
IF = (VS – 0.7) / RL
= (50 – 0.7) / 200 = 246.5mA

Therefore, D1 must have an IO > 246.5mA.

IO = 1.2 IF = (1.2) (246.5) = 295.8mA (minimum)

38
 Forward Power Dissipation PD(max)
• This rating indicates the maximum possible power dissipation
of the device when it is forward biased.

Example
Calculate the minimum forward power dissipation rating for
any diode that would be used in the circuit shown.

Solution
IF = (VS – 0.7) / RL
= (10 – 0.7) / 100 = 93mA
PF = IFVF
= (93mA) (0.7) = 65.1mW
PD(max) = 1.2 PF
= (1.2) (65.1) = 78.12 mW (minimum) 39
 (3) The Complete Diode Model
• The complete diode model most accurately represents the
true operating characteristics of the diode.
• It includes characteristics such as;
– Bulk resistance, RB,
– Reverse current, IR
that are meant for circuit development and high-frequency
analysis
• The model is used to explain many of the differences
between predicted and measured circuit values.

40
 Bulk Resistance RB
• This refers to the approximate resistance across the terminals of the diode
when a forward voltage and current are applied across the diode.
• The effect due to RB is that VF become non-constant.
– VF is constant in the practical diode model.
– The bulk resistance of a diode can be calculated at any given time using ohm's
law:
RB= ∆VF/∆IF
Example
Consider a silicon diode with a forward voltage drop of 0.9V for a forward
diode current, IF, of 1.5A, what is the bulk resistance, RB?
Solution
Current flow doesn't start until the voltage across the diode surpasses the
barrier voltage, VB which is above 0.7V. Therefore, we assume the current is
initially 0A at 0.7V.

RB= ∆VF/∆IF= (0.9V - 0.7V)/(1.5A - 0A)= 0.13Ω

Diode circuit and behaviour

æ kTqv
ö
IF = IS ç
ç e - 1÷
÷
è ø

42
• The diode equivalent circuit looks as follows.
Note: VB and RB only exist when the diode is in
forward bias, not reverse bias.

• As IF increases, IFRB increases too.

– The total voltage across a diode varies with IF.
– The measured values of VF generally vary between 0.7 V and 1.1 V.
– In a low-current circuit, the VF will tend to be closer to 0.7 V because
lesser voltage drop across RB.
– In a high-current circuit, the VF will tend to be closer to 1.1 V.
43
 Reverse Current IR
• In reverse bias, the diode is supposed to stop current flow.

• However, there is a small current IR that flows because of the

minority carriers.

• IR is made of two components

IR = IS + ISL
where IS = the reverse saturation current (It varies with
temperature)
ISL = the surface-leakage current (It varies with the
reverse voltage).

44
• Since ISL << IS, it is safe to assume that IR » IS.
– This makes IR dependent on temperature as well.

– The voltage developed across any series resistance by IR is usually

insignificant. However, knowing it helps us to explain:

• Any voltage across the series resistance may increase dramatically

with increases in operating temperature.
• We often do not measure the full applied voltage across a reverse-
biased diode.

45
 Diode Capacitances (1)
• When a diode is reverse-biased, it forms a
depletion layer (insulator) between two
semiconductor materials.
– It has some measurable amount of
junction capacitance.
• Junction capacitance: Capacitance
associated with the charge variation in the
depletion layer and is present when the
diode is reverse biased. It is very important
in high-frequency operation of a diode e.g in
a Varactor diode
• It is determined by the spacing, W between
the positive charge on the p-side of the
junction and the negative charge on the n-
side. The larger the reverse bias voltage, the
bigger the W and hence the larger that
junction capacitance.
46
 Diode Capacitances (2)
Diffusion capacitance:
• Also known as transit time capacitance
• It is related to a charge that is stored in the diode when it is forward
biased.
• Forward biasing a diode causes the diode to conduct some current
across it. The flow of current implies that a certain amount of charge is
transported through the diode per unit time. That is, Iq =qdq/τT where
qdq is the charge inside the junction and τT is the time it takes this
charge to cross the diode (called the storage or transit time). If we
change the diode voltage drop, this charge will change to a new value.
• The change in the stored charge as a result of change in diode voltage
is called the diffusion capacitance.

47
 Temperature Effects on Diode
Operation
• An increase in temperature
results to an increase in thermal
activity hence a decrease in
diode resistance.
– This is true for both forward bias
and reverse bias.

• As temperature increases, at a
fixed value of VF, IF increases.

• As temperature increases, at a
fixed value of IF, VF decreases.

48
• As temperature increases, IR increases for all values of VR (<
VRRM).

49
 Applications of PN diodes
• It is used as a Photo Detector for most fiber optic application.
• They are used in electronic pre-amplifier to boost sensitivity.
• They are used as a variable resistor in at RF and microwave frequency.
• Widely used in RF modulator circuit to control RF intermodulation
distortion.
• In a phase shifter circuit considered as a lumped variable-impedance
microwave circuit element.
• PIN diodes are utilized as series or shunt connected switches in phase
shifter designs. The switched elements are either lengths of
transmission line or reactive elements.

50
 ZENER DIODE

• A pn–junction diode operated in

the breakdown region is usually
destroyed by the excessive
reverse current and the heat it
produces.
– But the Zener diodes are designed
to operate in the reverse
breakdown region.
• The reverse voltage across the
diode VR remains near-constant
voltage (called Zener voltage,
VZ) despite a drastic change in
current flow through the diode.
51
• A Zener diode is useful as a voltage regulator.
– A voltage regulator is a circuit designed to maintain a relatively
constant voltage despite anticipated variations in load current or
input voltage.

• Zener diode is useful in the reverse bias mode, not in the

forward bias mode.
• There are two types of reverse breakdown:
– Avalanche breakdown *Please find out the
– Zener breakdown. difference between these
two!
• The materials of the Zener diode are designed in such a
way that the Zener breakdown occurs at relatively low
reverse voltage, VR.

52
• Zener breakdown is a type of reverse breakdown that
occurs at relatively low reverse voltages.
• The n–type and p–type materials of zener diode are heavily
doped, resulting in a narrow depletion layer.
• Therefore, the depletion layer can break down at a lower
VR than the depletion layer in a pn–junction diode.
• Zener diodes with low VZ ratings experience Zener
breakdown, while those with high VZ ratings will
experience Avalanche breakdown.

53
 Zener Operating Characteristics
• A Zener diode maintains a VZT

near-constant VR for a
range of IR values.
• Zener knee current IZK is
the minimum current
required to maintain
voltage regulation
(constant voltage).
• To use the zener as a
voltage regulator, the
current through the diode
must never be lesser than
IZK. 54
• The maximum Zener knee current IZM is the maximum
amount of current the diode can tolerate without being
damaged.

• Zener test current IZT is the current level at which the VZ

rating of the diode is measured.
– It is an important parameter in circuit design.
– If you need to have a zener voltage that is as close to the rated
value of VZ as possible, you need to design the circuit to have a
current value equal to IZT.

55
• Zener impedance ZZ is the Zener diode’s resistance to any
change in current.

56
• There are two equivalent circuits for the zener diode.
• The ideal model considers the zener to be a voltage source
equal to VZ.
– When placed in a circuit, this voltage source opposes the applied
circuit voltage.

57
• The practical model includes a series resistor, ZZ.
• This model is mainly used for predicting the response of the
diode to a change in circuit current.

58
 Example
A Zener diode has a ZZ of 3.5W. The data sheet gives VZT =
6.8V at IZT = 37mA and IZK = 1mA. What is the voltage across
the Zener terminals when the current is 50mA? When the
current is 25mA?
Solution (1)
For IZ = 50mA,
ΔIZ = IZ − IZT = (50-37)mA = 13mA
ΔVZ = ΔIZZZ = (13mA) (3.5) = 45.5mV
The change in voltage due to the increase in current
above the IZT value causes the Zener terminal voltage to
increase.
The Zener voltage for IZ = 50mA is
VZ = 6.8 + ΔVZ = 6.8 + 0.0455 = 6.85V 59
 Solution(2)
When the current is 25mA;

For IZ = 25mA,
ΔIZ = IZ − IZT = −12mA
ΔVZ = ΔIZZZ = (−12mA) (3.5) = −42mV

The change in voltage due to the decrease in current

below IZT value causes the Zener terminal voltage to
decrease. The Zener voltage for IZ = 25mA is
VZ = 6.8 − ΔVZ = 6.8 − 0.042 = 6.76V

60
 Other diode types (1)
1) Varactor/Varicap diode

• Also called a parametric diode, tuning diodes or varicap diodes

• Provides a voltage-dependent variable capacitance
• The bias is always reverse. This means that the varactor diode does not
conduct electricity. If the bias is turned positive then the device will start
conducting.
Characteristics of Varactor diode
• Low-noise characteristic: produce much less noise than most conventional
amplifiers.
• Low cost
• High reliability
• Light weight
• Small size
61
 Other diode types (2)
Operation of varactor diode
• The varactor diode operates in reverse bias. When a reverse voltage is applied across
the diode terminals, a depletion region is formed. The larger the reverse bias applied
across the diode ,the wider is the width of the depletion region.
• The depletion region is devoid of majority carriers and acts like insulator preventing
conduction between the N and P regions of the diode ,just like a dielectric between
two plates of a capacitor.
• Since capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates ,the
transition capacitance varies inversely with the reverse voltages. Therefore, an increase
in reverse bias voltage results in an increase in the depletion region width and a
subsequent decrease in transition capacitance. At zero (0V) volts ,the varactor
depletion region is small and capacitance is large at approximately 600pF.When the
reverse bias voltage across the varactor is increased to 15V ,the capacitance decreases
to 30pF

62
 Other diode types (3)
2) Tunnel diode
• Also called Esaki diode.
• It is a heavily doped PN- junction; - Doping density of about 1000 times
greater than ordinary junction diode.
• These diodes are fabricated from germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), and
Gallium Antimonide.
• A semi-conductor characterised by negative resistance; when voltage is
increased, the current through it decreases.
• Heavy doping; --
– Reduces the width of depletion layer to about 0.00001 mm.
– Produces negative resistance section in characteristics graph of diode.
– Reduces the reverse breakdown voltage to a small value approaches to zero.
– Small forbidden gaps in tunnel diode.
– Allows conduction for all reverse voltages.

63
 Other diode types (4)
2) Tunnel diode – Principle of operation

• The operation is based on a principle known as “tunneling”.

• Tunnelling; The movement of valence electrons from valence energy band
to conduction band with no applied forward voltage
• Intrinsic voltage barrier (0.3V for Ge) is reduced which enhanced tunneling.
• Enhanced tunneling causes effective conductivity.
• When the tunnel diode is slightly forward biased, many carriers are able to
tunnel through narrow depletion region without acquiring that energy.
• The carriers are able to tunnel or easily pass because the voltage barrier is
reduced due to high doping.

64
 Other diode types (5)
2) Tunnel diode – operation (cont’d)
Forward Bias operation:
At first voltage begin to increase,
Electrons tunnel through pn junction.
Electron and holes states become aligned.

Voltage increases further:

States become misaligned.
Current drops.
Shows negative resistance (V increase, I decrease).

As voltage increase yet further:

The diode behave as normal diode.
The electrons no longer tunnel through barrier.

Reverse Bias Operation:

When used in reverse direction, they are called as Back Diodes.
In this,
The electrons in valence band of p-side tunnel directly towards the empty states
present in the conduction band of n-side.
Thus, creating large tunneling current which increases with application of reverse 65
voltage.
 Other diode types (6)
2) Tunnel diode – I-V Characteristics

After continuous increase of V, the current

As forward bias is applied, significant achieves its minimum value called as
amount of current, I is produced. Valley Current. After further increase in V,
current start increasing as ordinary diode.

66
 Other diode types (7)
The Tunnel diode reverse I-V is similar to the Zener diode.
The Zener diode has a region in its reverse bias characteristics of
almost a constant voltage regardless of the current flowing through
the diode.

67
 Applications of Tunnel diode
• It is used as an ultra- high speed switch due to tunneling (which
essentially takes place at speed of light). It has switching time of
nanoseconds or picoseconds.
• Used as logic memory storage device.
• Widely used in satellite communication equipment
• Also used in relaxation oscillator circuits.
• Due to low power requirement, they are used in FM receivers.
• Tunnel diodes are resistant to the effects of magnetic fields, high
temperature and radioactivity. That’s why these can be used in modern
military equipment – Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) machines.

68