CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of semiconductor
1.3 Literatures
CHAPTER 2
2.1 Theory
2.2 Basic photo resistor structure
CHAPTER 3
3.1 Experimental setup
3.2 Procedures
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Result and discussion
4.2 Graphs
4.3 conclusions
4.4 Bibliography
 CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
1.3 LITERATURE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
SEMICONDUCTORS:
A semiconductor is a substance, usually a solid chemical element or
compound, that can conduct electricity under some conditions but not others,
making it a good medium for the control of electrical current. Its conductance
varies depending on the current or voltage applied to a control electrode, or on
the intensity of irradiation by infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV), or X rays.

The specific properties of a semiconductor depend on the impurities, or

dopants, added to it. An N-type semiconductors carries current mainly in the form
of negatively –charged electrons, in a manner similar to the conduction of current
in a wire. A P-type semiconductor carries current predominantly as electron
deficiencies called holes. A hole as a positive electric charge, equal and opposite
to the charge on an electron. In a semiconductor material, the flow of holes
occurs in a direction opposite to the flow of electrons.

Elemental semiconductors include antimony, arsenic, boron, carbon,

germanium, selenium, silicon, sulfur, and tellurium. Silicon is the best know of
these, forming the basis of most integrated circuits (ICs).

1.2 the semiconductors are mainly classified into two types

1. intrinsic semiconductor
2. Extrinsic semiconductor

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
The semiconductor material which does not have any impurities is known as an
intrinsic semiconductors or pure conductors. Silicon and Germanium, which
belongs to the fourth group element, behave like a semiconductor
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
The introduction of the extrinsic semiconductor is due to the excess holes or
excess electrons present in silicon. Pure semiconductors are of few uses as they
have few charges carriers which cause conduction. By adding some impurities to
the pure semiconductors the extrinsic semiconductor are obtained.

RESISTOR
A RESISTOR is an electrical component that limit or regulates the flow of
electrical current in an electrical circuit. Resistor will come in one of the two
termination types: through hole or surface mount.

Through hole: resistor comes with long pliable leads which can be stuck into a
bread board or hand soldered into a prototyping board or printed circuit board
(PCB)

Surface mount resistance: these are usually tiny block rectangles, terminated on
either side with even smaller, shiny, silver conductive edge. Here the resistor are
so small, they are set into place by a robot.
The resistor are classified as follows
• Fixed resistor
• Variable resistor
• Wire wound resistor
• Carbon composition resistor
• Film type resistor
• Surface mount resistor
• Fusible resistor
• Thermistor
• Light dependent resistor
Light dependent resistor

Light dependent resistors, LDR’s, or photo resistors are often used to detect
light and change the operation of a circuit dependent upon the light levels. Light
dependent resistor, LDR’s or photo resisters are often used in circuits. Where it is
necessary to detect the presence the level of light. They can be described by
variety of names from light dependent resistor, LDR, photo resistor, or even
photo cell, or photoconductor.

Although other devices such as photodiodes or photo transistor can also be

used, LDR’s or photo resistor are particularly convenient electronics component
to use. they provide large change in resistance for changes in light level. In view of
their low cost, easy of manufacture, and easy of use, LDR’s have been used in
variety of different applications. At one time LDR’s were used in photographic
light meters, and even now they are still used in a variety of applications where it
is necessary to detect light levels.

“A photo resistor or light dependent resistor is a component that is sensitive to

light”. When light falls upon it then the resistance changes over many orders of
magnitude the value of the resistance falling as the level of light increases. It is
not uncommon for the value of resistance of an LDR or photo resistor to be
several mega ohms in darkness and then to fall to a few hundred ohms in bright
light with such a wide variation in resistance, LDR’s are easy to use and there are
many LDR circuits available. The sensitivity of light dependent resistors or
photoresistors also varies with the wavelength of the incident light. LDR’s are
made from semiconductor materials to enable them to have their light sensitive
property. Many materials can be used, but one popular material for these photo
resistors is cadmium sulphide , Cds although the use of these cells is now
restricted in Europe because of environmental issues with the use of cadmium
sulfide. Similarly cadmium selenide Cdse is also restricted. Other materials that
can be used include lead sulphide pds and indium antimonide Insb.

Although a semiconductor material is used for these photo resistor, they are
purely passive devices because they do not possess a PN junction and this
separates them from other photo detectors like photo diodes and photo resistor.
LITERATURE
The idea of photo resistor developed when photoconductivity in selenium
was discovered by willoughby Smith in 1873. Many variants of the
photoconductive devices were then made.

The controlling of lights and home appliances is generally operated and

maintained manually on several occasions. But the process of appliances
controlling may cause wastage of power due due to the careless of human beings
or unusual circumstances. To overcome this problem we can use the light
dependent resistor circuit for controlling the loads used on the intensity of light.
An LDR or a photo resistor is a device that is made up of high resistance
semiconductor material.

In view of their low cost, easy to manufacture and easy to use. LDR’s have
been used in a variety of different applications. At one time LDR were used in
photographic light meters and even now they are still used in a verity of
applications where it is necessary to detect light level.