THE FUNDAENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

1. The body of all organisms is made up of tiny microscopic units

called cells.
2. The cell is a fundamental, structural and functional unit of living
organisms (basic unit of life).
3. All living organisms are made up of cells. Cells make tissues,
tissues together make an organ, organs make the organ system
and organ systems make the body of organisms. So, a cell is called
a structural unit of life.
4. Division of labor is seen within a single cell. Each cell has got
certain specific components within it known as cell organelles.
Each cell organelle performs a specific function, such as making
new material in the cell, clearing up the waste material from the
cell, etc. A cell is able to live and perform all its functions because
of these organelles. All the basic functions of the body like
respiration, excretion etc. are carried out by the cell through its
cell organelles, so the cell is called a functional unit of life.
5. Cell biology is the study of cells in all aspects of structure and
functions.
YEAR SCIENTIST  DISCOVERY

1665 Robert Hooke Noticed the presence of cells in a cork slice.

1674 Leeuwenhoek Found the presence of living cells in the pond

water.

1831 Robert Brown Recognized the existence of a nucleus in the cell.

1839 Purkinje Coined the term ‘Protoplasm’ which is the fluid

present in a cell.
1838, Schleiden and Presented the cell theory - All organisms are
1839 Schwann actually made up of cells.

1855 Virchow Suggested that all cells come from cells that
already exist in nature.

Discovery of cell:
1. Cell was first discovered by Robert Hook in 1665. He observed the
cell in a cork slice with the help of a primitive microscope.

2.Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) was the first to observe free cells,
like bacteria, protozoa, red blood cells and sperms in his homemade
microscope.

Cell theory:
1. The cell theory, that all plants and animals are composed of cells and
that the cell is a basic unit of life, was presented by two biologists, M.
Schleiden (1838) and T. Schwann (1839).
2. The cell theory was further expanded by a German physiologist,
Rudolf Virchow (1855). He stated that all cells arise from pre-existing
cells.
3. Modified cell theory is termed as cell principle or modern cell theory
which postulates that:
 All living organisms are composed of cells or cell products.
 All living cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic
processes.
The functions of an organism as a whole are the result of the activities
and interaction of the constituent cells.
Shape, size and number of cells:
 Cell shape:
The shape of cells is related to the specific function they perform.
Some cells like Amoeba and WBCs can change their shapes.
In some cases, the cell shape could be more or less fixed and
peculiar for a particular type of cell; for example, nerve cells have
a typical shape.
  Cell size:
The size of the cell also varies considerably in different animals
and plants.
The average cell size varies from 0.5 to 20µ (µ = micrometer).
In the human body, the smallest cell is RBC and the longest one is
the nerve cells.

Note: The shape and size of cells are related to the specific function
they perform. 

Cell number:
1. The number of cells in living beings differs from the one in unicellular
organisms to many in multicellular forms.
2.The number of cells is not definite in multicellular organisms, and may
increase along with the growth and volume of the organism.
Unicellular Multicellular
If a organism contains only one If an organism contains more
cell. than one cell.
In unicellular, single cell performs Many cells perform different
all the functions. functions.
Amoeba, paramecium, Euglena, Plants, animals
Vorticella, Chlamydomonas

Structure of cell:

Structurally the cell is formed of three major parts:

1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane
2.Cytoplasm and its contents
3.Nucleus

Plasma membrane (cell membrane):

 Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell that
separates the contents of the cell from its external environment.
Plasma membrane is a living, thin, delicate, flexible, selectively
permeable membrane.
 The plasma membrane is flexible and made up of organic
molecules called lipids and proteins.
 The plasma membrane permits the entry or exit of certain
substances through a cell. That is why it is also called a ‘Selectively
Permeable Membrane’ or semipermeable membrane.
The Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane
The Fluid Mosaic model explains the structure of the plasma
membrane. According to it, the plasma membrane comprises 2
components - Lipids and Proteins. These components can flow freely
and fluidly inside the plasma membrane.
There are two types of lipids (fats) in the plasma membrane:
1. Phospholipid – It is a lipid made up of glycerol, two fatty acids,
and phosphate. It creates a semi-permeable membrane which
allows flow of only certain materials inside/ outside the cell
2. Cholesterol - It is a lipid which provides fluidity to the surface of
the plasma membrane.
Phospholipid- phosphor means phosphate and lipid means di-glyceride
or fatty acid chains. The head side of phospholipid is hydrophilic
meaning it like water. The tail side id hydrophilic.
The proteins act as receptors of the cell and help in transportation
across the cell membrane. The carbohydrates attach themselves with
the lipids and proteins and are found on the extracellular side of the
membrane.
What is Endocytosis? (Olympiad)
It is a process by which the plasma membrane engulfs food and other
materials inside the cell. The flexibility of the cell membrane enables
the cell to engulf in food and other material from its external
environment. This is known as endocytosis.

How can substances move in and out of a cell?

Gaseous Exchange between the Cell and its External Environment –

1. Movement of Oxygen and Carbon dioxide to and from the cell is

carried out by means of diffusion.
 2. Gaseous substances have a tendency to move to areas where
their concentration is less from the areas where there is higher.
This process is diffusion. Diffusion can take place in solids, liquids,
gases.

Diffusion: The movement of molecules from a region of higher

concentration to a region of lower concentration, down the
concentration gradient, till equilibrium is reached is called diffusion.
Factors Affecting Diffusion
There are a few factors that affect the process of diffusion, which
individually and collectively alters the rate and extent of diffusion.
These factors include:
 Temperature.
 Area of Interaction.
 Size of the particle.

Examples of Diffusion
 A teabag immersed in a cup of hot water will diffuse into the
water and change its color.
 A spray of perfume or room freshener will get diffused into the air
by which we can sense the odour.
 Sugar gets dissolved evenly and sweetens the water without
having to stir it.
 As we lit the incense stick, its smoke got diffused into the air and
spread throughout the room.
  By adding boiling water into the dried noodles, the water diffuses
causing rehydration and making dried noodles plumper and
saturated.

Causes of Diffusion
In gases and liquids, particles move randomly from one place to
another, during which the particles collide with each other or with the
container. This changes the direction of the molecules.

Significance of Diffusion
Diffusion is an important process, which is involved in the different life
processes. As mentioned above, it is the net movement of particles,
ions, molecules, solution, etc. In all living species, diffusion plays an
important role in the movement of the molecules during the metabolic
process in the cells.
1.During the process of respiration, this process helps in diffusing the
carbon dioxide gas out through the cell membrane into the blood.
2.The movement of ions across the neurons that generate electrical
charge is due to diffusion.

Movement of Water between the Cell and its External Environment –

It is carried out by the means of osmosis. Osmosis is a process in which
water moves from the region of high concentration to one where its
concentration is low through a semipermeable membrane. Therefore,
we can say that Osmosis is just a special case of the process of
diffusion.
Osmosis:
It is the movement of solvent molecules from the region of its higher
concentration to the region of its lower concentration through a
semipermeable membrane. For example, plants take water from roots
with the help of osmosis.

Types of solutions
Hypotonic Solutions
If the concentration of water outside the cell is higher than the
concentration of water inside the cell, the cell gains water by the
process of osmosis. Such a solution is known as a hypotonic solution.
Water molecules are free to pass across the cell membrane. But the net
result is that water enters the cell and the cell swells up. It leads to
cytolysis. cell bursts due to an osmotic imbalance

Isotonic Solutions
If the cells are put in an environment which has similar concentration of
water as present inside the cell, then there will be no net movement of
water across the cell membrane. Therefore, the size of the cell does not
vary in an isotonic solution because there is no net movement of water.

Hypertonic Solutions
If the cells are kept in an environment which has lower concentration of
water than what is present inside the cells then due to the process of
osmosis water moves out of the cells. This results in a decrease in size
of the cells (they shrink) as more water comes out of the cell.

CELL WALL

 Cell wall is non-living, thick and freely permeable covering made

up of cellulose.
 It is present in eukaryotic plant cells and in prokaryotic cells. But
absent in animal cells.

Functions:
1. It determines the shape and rigidity of the plant cell.
2. It protects the plasma membrane.
3. It prevents desiccation or dryness in the cell.
4. It helps in the transport of various substances in and out of the
cell.

Plasmolysis: When a living plant cell loses water through osmosis there
is shrinkage of the contents of the cell away from the cell wall. This
phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

Cell walls permit the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to withstand
very dilute (hypotonic) external media without bursting. In such media
the cells tend to take up water by osmosis. The cell swells, building up
pressure against the cell wall. The wall exerts an equal pressure against
the swollen cell. Because of their walls, such cells can withstand much
greater changes in the surrounding medium than animal cells.
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
No well defined nucleus Well defined nucleus
Doesn’t have membrane bounded Have membrane bounded
organelles organelles.
Single chromosome Multiple chromosome
Bacteria, archaea Plants animals and protists.

Archaea are like bacteria, protists can be protozoans, algae and slime
molds. Protozoans are animal like protists algae are plant like protists
and slime molds are fungus like protists.
NUCLEUS:

 Nucleus is a dense and spherical organelle.

 Nucleus is bounded by two membranes, both forming a nuclear
envelope. Nuclear envelope contains many pores known as
nuclear pores which allow the transfer of material from inside the
nucleus to its outside, that is, to the cytoplasm.
 The fluid which is present inside the nucleus is called
nucleoplasm.
 Nucleus contains chromosomes and chromosomes contain genes
which are the centers of genetic information. Chromosomes are
visible in the form of X- shape when the cell is about to divide.
 Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of features
from parents to the next generation in the form of DNA
(Deoxyribonucleic Acid) molecules.
 Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
  Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
 Chromatin is an entangled mass of threadlike structures.
Whenever the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets
organized into chromosomes.

Functions:
 Nucleus controls all the metabolic activities of the cell.
 It regulates the cell cycle.
 Nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction.
 It is concerned with the transmission of hereditary traits from the
parent to offspring.
CYTOPLASM
 It is a jelly-like, viscous, colorless substance that occurs between
the plasma membrane and the nuclear membrane.
 The aqueous ground substance of cytoplasm is called cytosol that
contains a large number of cell organelles and other insoluble
waste products and storage products, like starch, glycogen, lipid,
etc.
Functions:
1. Protoplasm acts as a store of vital chemicals like amino acids,
proteins, sugars, vitamins, etc.
2. It is the site of certain metabolic reactions, like glycolysis,
synthesis of fatty acids, nucleotides, etc.
3. There are many cell organelles present which help in the cell to
perform different functions.
The significance of membranes can be illustrated with the example of
viruses. Viruses lack any membranes and hence do not show
characteristics of life until they enter a living body and use its cell
machinery to multiply.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-
bound tubes and sheets. It looks like long tubules or round or
oblong bags (vesicles).
 Although the ER varies greatly in appearance in different cells, it
always forms a network system.
 The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane.
 There are two types of ER– rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called
ribosomes attached to its surface. The ribosomes are the sites of
protein manufacture. The manufactured proteins are then sent to
various places in the cell depending on need.
The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important
for cell function.
Functions:
1. Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell
membrane. This process is known as membrane biogenesis.
2. Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and
hormones.
3. One function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of
materials (especially proteins) between various regions of the
cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.
 4. The ER also functions as a cytoplasmic framework providing a
surface for some of the biochemical activities of the cell.
5. In the liver cells of the group of animals called vertebrates, SER
plays a crucial role in detoxifying many poisons and drugs.

GOLGI APPARATUS
 The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, consists of a
system of membrane-bound vesicles arranged approximately
parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
 These membranes often have connections with the membranes of
ER and therefore constitute another portion of a complex cellular
membrane system.
 The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched
to various targets inside and outside the cell through the Golgi
apparatus.

Functions:
1. Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of
products in vesicles.
2. In some cases, complex sugars may be made from simple sugars
in the Golgi apparatus.
3. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of
lysosomes.
MITOCHONDRIA
 Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. The
energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is
 released by mitochondria in the form of ATP (Adenosine
triphosphate) molecules.
 ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses
energy stored in ATP for making new chemical compounds and for
mechanical work.
 Mitochondria have two membrane coverings. The outer
membrane is very porous while the inner membrane is deeply
folded. These folds create a large surface area for ATP-generating
chemical reactions.
 Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have
their own DNA and ribosomes. Therefore, mitochondria are able
to make some of their proteins
LYSOSOME
Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive
enzymes. These enzymes are made by RER.

Functions:
1. Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell.
2. Lysosomes help to keep the cell clean by digesting any foreign
material as well as worn-out cell organelles.
3. Foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as
well as old organelles end up in the lysosomes, which break them
up into small pieces. Lysosomes are able to do this because they
contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking down all
organic material.
4. During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example, when
the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes
 digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the
‘suicide bags’ of a cell.

PLASTIDS

 Plastids are present only in plant cells.

 There are two types of plastids – chromoplasts (colored plastids)
and leucoplasts (white or colorless plastids). Plastids containing
the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts
are important for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also
contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to
chlorophyll. In leucoplast starch, oil, protein granules are stored.
 The internal organization consists of numerous membrane layers
embedded in a material called stroma. They have their own
ribosomes and DNA.
VACUOLES
 Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents.
 Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very
large vacuoles.
 The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the
cell volume.
 In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and
rigidity to the cell. Many substances of importance in the life of
the plant cell are stored in vacuoles.
 These include amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some
proteins.
 In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food vacuole contains
the food items that the Amoeba has consumed.
  In some unicellular organisms, specialized vacuoles also play
important roles in expelling excess water and some wastes from
the cell.

CELL DIVISION
Cell Division: The process by which new cells are made is called cell
division.
1. It is necessary for: Growth, replace dead, old, injured cells,
Gamete formation.
2. The two types of cell division are: Mitosis and Meiosis.

MITOSIS

1. The process of cell division by which most of the cells divide for
growth is called mitosis. In this process, each cell called mother
cell divides to form two identical daughter cells.
2. The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the
mother cell.
3. It helps in growth and repair of tissues in organisms.
MEIOSIS
1. Specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues in animals and
plants divide to form gametes, which after fertilization give rise to
offspring.
2. They divide by a different process called meiosis which involves
two consecutive divisions.
3. When a cell divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead
of just two.
4. The new cells only have half the number of chromosomes than
that of the mother cells.
5. The chromosome number is reduced to half in daughter
cells(gamete) in Meiosis because during fertilization two gametes
(sperm and ovum) fuse together and the chromosome number is
restored.
MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Forms new cells for growth and repair. Form’s gametes.

One cell division occurs. Two consecutive cell divisions occur.

Two daughter cells are formed. Four daughter cells are formed.

Daughter cells are diploid. Daughter cells are haploid.

Daughter cells are identical. Daughter cells are different.