CELLS

Basic Unit of Life

Link: https://youtu.be/URUJD5NEXC8

Cells are the smallest living units of an organism. All cells have three things in common no matter what type of cell they are. All cells have a
cell membrane which separates the inside of the cell from its environment, cytoplasm, which is a jelly-like fluid, and DNA which is the cell's
genetic material. There are two broad categories of cells: Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic

● The first category is eukaryotic cells. They have organelles which include the nucleus and other special parts. Eukaryotic cells are
more advanced, complex cells such as those found in plants and animals.
● The second category is prokaryotic cells. They don't have a nucleus or membrane enclosed organelles. They do have genetic
material but it's not contained within a nucleus. Prokaryotic cells are always one celled, or unicellular organisms, such as bacteria.

Organelle means "little organ." Organelles are the specialized parts of a cell that have unique jobs to perform.

1. The nucleus contains DNA or genetic material. DNA dictates what the cell is going to do and how it's going to do it. Chromatin is
the tangled, spread out form of DNA found inside the nuclear membrane. When a cell is ready to divide DNA condenses into
structures known as chromosomes. The nucleus also contains a nucleolus, which is a structure where ribosomes are made. After
ribosomes leave the nucleus they will have the important job of "synthesizing", or making, proteins.

2. Outside the nucleus the ribosomes and the rest of the organelles float around in cytoplasm, which is the jelly-like substance.
Ribosomes may wander freely within the cytoplasm or attach to the endoplasmic reticulum, sometimes abbreviated as ER. There
are two types of ER: rough ER has ribosomes attached to it and smooth ER doesn't have ribosomes attached to it. The
endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane enclosed passageway for transporting materials such as the proteins synthesized by
ribosomes.

3. Proteins and other materials emerge from the endoplasmic reticulum in small vesicles where the Golgi apparatus, sometimes
called the Golgi body receives them. As proteins move through the Golgi body they're customized into forms that the cell can use.
The Golgi body does this by folding the proteins into usable shapes. or adding other materials on to them such as lipids or
carbohydrates.
4. Vacuoles are sac-like structures that store different materials. Here, in this plant cell, the central vacuole stores water. Going back
to the animal cell, you'll see an organelle called a lysosome. Lysosomes are the garbage collectors that take in damaged or worn
out cell parts. They are filled with enzymes that break down this cellular debris. The mitochondrion is an organelle that is the
powerhouse for both animal and plant cells. During a process called cellular respiration the mitochondria make ATP molecules
that provide the energy for all the cell's activities. Cells that need more energy have more mitochondria. Meanwhile the cell
maintains its shape through a cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton includes the thread-like microfilaments which are made of protein
and microtubules which are thin hollow tubes
5. Some organisms such as plants are photoautotrophic, meaning they capture sunlight for energy and have cells with an organelle
called a chloroplast. The chloroplast is where photosynthesis happens. It's green because it has a green pigment called
chlorophyll. Plant cells also have a cell wall outside of their cell membranes that shape, support, and protect the plant cell. Animal
cells never have a cell wall.
6. There are many other unique structures that only some cells have. Here are just a few.
● In humans, for example, the respiratory tract is lined with cells that have cilia. These are microscopic hair-like
projections that can move in waves. This feature helps trap inhaled particles in the air and expels them when you
cough.
● Another unique feature in some cells is flagella. Some bacteria have flagella. A flagellum is like a little tail that can help
a cell move or propel itself. The only human cell that has a flagellum is a sperm cell.

In summary, remember: eukaryotic cells are plant and animal cells with a nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. While prokaryotic
cells are unicellular organisms without these things. All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material. And even though only
plant cells have chloroplasts both plant and animal cells have mitochondria.

CELL TRANSPORTATION
Passive and Active Transportation
Link: https://youtu.be/J5pWH1r3pgU

CELL MEMBRANE
Plasma membrane is what regulates what moves into and out of a cell. The membrane is composed mainly of phospholipid
molecules and has protein molecules scattered throughout its structure. The phospholipid molecules have a polar hydrophilic water loving
head and two non polar hydrophobic water fearing tails. The membrane is formed as the heads face out and the tails face in forming a
bilayer.
 The inner part of the cell called the cytosol is here, and the outside of the cell is surrounded by a fluid called interstitial fluid.
Substances move into and out of a cell through several different processes called membrane transport. There are two main processes,
passive transport processes and active transport processes. The main difference between the two is that passive processes do not require
energy expenditure and active processes do require the cells to expend energy.

PASSIVE TRANSPORTATION (Simple diffusion, Facilitated diffusion and Osmosis)

a. Diffusion is the movement of a substance from where it has a high concentration to where it has a low concentration, or the
tendency of a substance to spread out evenly over a given space. For instance, when a sugar cube is dissolved in water. Over time
the cube will dissolve and eventually spread out evenly in the water, until it reaches equilibrium. Diffusion occurs down a
concentration gradient, which is a difference in concentration of a substance between two areas. So, the sugar molecules will
move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Cellular diffusion is when diffusion of a solute, which is
a dissolved substance, occurs across the plasma membrane from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.
This is dependent on the concentration of a substance in the interstitial fluid outside the cell, and the cytosol inside the cell.

b. Simple diffusion occurs with solutes that are small and nonpolar. By being non-polar they can move in between phospholipid
molecules that form the plasma membrane because the interior region of the membrane is nonpolar. Some of the materials that
move by simple diffusion include the gasses oxygen and carbon dioxide and small fatty acids. So, if there is a higher
concentration of oxygen O2 molecules outside of a cell, they can move down the concentration gradient, across the membrane
without assistance, and into the cell as long as the concentration gradient exists. And if there is a higher concentration of carbon
dioxide CO2 molecules inside a cell, they can move across the membrane without assistance, out of the cell into the interstitial
fluid.

c. The second type of diffusion is facilitated diffusion. This applies to solutes that are small and either charged or polar. Because
these solutes are polar, the non-polar phospholipid bilayer blocks them from passing through the membrane and into or out of the
cell by simple diffusion. However, they can pass into and out of the cell with the assistance of plasma membrane proteins through
a process called facilitated diffusion. There are two types of facilitated diffusion, channel mediated diffusion and carrier
mediated diffusion. The difference between the two is the type of transport protein used to move the substance across the
membrane.

● Channel mediated diffusion is when an ion, which is a charged particle where its total number of electrons does not
equal its total number of protons giving it a positive or negative charge, moves across the membrane through a water
filled protein channel. Each protein channel is typically specific for one type of ion, and there are two types of channels,
a leak channel, which is continuously open, and a gated channel, which only opens due to a stimulus, and only stays
open for a fraction of a second. So, for a sodium positive ion, it can pass through a sodium positive leak channel
continuously and a gated sodium positive channel will only open due to a stimulus to allow the ion to pass through into
the cell.
● Carrier mediated diffusion involves the movement of polar molecules such as simple sugars or simple carbohydrates
and amino acids across the membrane. This is accomplished by a carrier protein, which actually changes shape in the
process. For instance glucose binds to a carrier protein, which changes shape and moves the glucose molecule to the
other side of the membrane.

d. Osmosis is the passive movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane. This occurs when there is a difference in
concentration of water on either side of the membrane. This can happen in one of two ways, water can slip between the
phospholipid molecules that make up the plasma membrane, or through integral protein water channels that are called
aquaporins. The plasma membrane is not permeable to most solutes, such as charged, polar and large substances, so for
example, one side of the membrane, the cytosol or interstitial fluid, can have more solutes than the other side. Let's say the
interstitial fluid has 3 percent solutes and 97 percent water, and the cytosol side has 1 percent solutes and 99 percent water. In
this example water will move down its concentration gradient from the 99 percent cytosol side to the 97 percent interstitial side to
achieve equilibrium.

ACTIVE TRANSPORTATION
Active processes require the use of cellular energy for membrane transport. There are two types of active processes, active
transport and vesicular transport. Active transport is the movement of a solute against its concentration gradient, or going from an area of
low concentration to a place of higher concentration. Vesicular transport is the transport of large substances across the plasma membrane
by a vesicle, which is a membrane bound sac filled with materials.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
● In primary active transport cellular protein pumps called ion pumps move ions across the membrane, against their concentration
gradient. Here we have a membrane along with a sodium positive, and potassium positive protein pump. Three sodium ions and
ATP bind to the pump. ATP being like fuel or the form of cellular energy. In order to release that energy ATP breaks down into ADP
 and P. P binds to the pump and the release of energy causes the pump to change shape and release the sodium positive ions into
the interstitial fluid. Two positive potassium ions bind to the pump and the P produced by the ATP is released into the cytosol of
the cell. The transport protein, or pump reverts back to its original shape, releasing the positive potassium ions into the cytosol,
and the pump is ready to do its job again.
● In secondary active transport a substance is moved against its concentration gradient by using energy provided by the movement
of a second substance down its concentration gradient. So, a substance that is moving from a place of high concentration to low
concentration will provide the energy to move a second substance from a place of low concentration to high concentration.

➢ There are two types of secondary active transports, symport, where two substances are moved in the same direction
and antiport, where two substances are moved in opposite directions. In our example here we have positive sodium
ions moving from high concentration outside of the cell to lower concentration inside of the cell. A symporter will use
the energy created by this to move a glucose molecule from a low concentration area to a high concentration area. And
here we have an antiporter, again using the energy from moving positive sodium ions from high concentration outside
of the cell to lower concentration inside of the cell an H+ is moved up its gradient and outside of the cell.

VESICULAR TRANSPORT
Vesicular transport involves the transport of larger substances, such as proteins or large carbohydrate polysaccharides, across
the plasma membrane. There are two types of vesicular transport, exocytosis and endocytosis.
a. In exocytosis, materials are secreted from the cell to the interstitial fluid outside of the cell. Typically, membranous vesicles
formed by the golgi apparatus transport materials to the cell membrane. At the membrane the phospholipid molecules that make
up the vesicle fuse the phospholipid molecules that make up the plasma membrane, and the contents of the vesicle are released
outside of the cell. The vesicle membrane now becomes part of the plasma membrane.
b. In endocytosis the plasma membrane kind of traps a substance by folding inward. The lipid bilayer then fuses to form a vesicle
surrounding the substance. There are three main forms of endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated
endocytosis.
● In phagocytosis a large particle is engulfed by the newly formed vesicle and this vesicle fuses with a lysosome, which
is a membranous vesicle that contains digestive enzymes that break down the particle into its component molecules.
Phagocytosis is also called cell eating.
● Pinocytosis, which is also referred to as cell drinking, is when the plasma membrane folds inward and engulfs droplets
of interstitial fluid that contain dissolved solutes that can be used by the cell.
● Receptor mediated endocytosis involves using receptors on the outside of the plasma membrane. These receptors
bind with molecules in the interstitial fluid and the membrane folds enclosing the receptors and the bound molecules,
to form a vesicle for transport within the cell.

PART 1: HISTORY & NERVOUS AND MUSCLE TISSUE

Link: Tissues, Part 1: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #2 - YouTube

Every cell in your body has its own specific job description related to maintaining your homeostasis, that balance of materials and energy
that keeps you alive. And those cells are the most basic building blocks in the hierarchy of increasingly complex structures that make you
what you are. Tissues are like the fabric of your body. In fact, the term literally means “woven.” What function a certain part of your organ
performs, depends on what kind of tissue it’s made of. In other words, the type of tissue defines its function. And we have four primary
tissues, each with a different job: our nervous tissue provides us with control and communication, muscle tissues give us movement,
epithelial tissues line our body cavities and organs, and essentially cover and protect the body, while connective tissues provide support.

HISTORY
a. Although physicians and artists have been exploring human anatomy for centuries, histology -- the study of our tissues -- is a
much younger discipline. That’s because, in order to get all up in a body’s tissues, we needed microscopes, and they weren’t
invented until the 1590’s, when Hans and Zacharias Jansen, a father-son pair of Dutch spectacle makers, put some lenses in a
tube and changed science forever.

b. So the heyday of microscopes didn’t really get crackin’ until the late 1600s, when another Dutchman -- Anton van Leeuwenhoek --
became the first to make and use truly high-power microscopes. While other scopes at the time were lucky to get 50-times
magnification, Van Leeuwenhoek’s had up to 270-times magnifying power, identifying things as small as one thousandth of a
millimeter. Using his new scope, Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe microorganisms, bacteria, spermatozoa, and muscle
fibers, earning himself the illustrious title of The Father of Microbiology for his troubles. But even then, his amazing new optics
weren’t quite enough to launch the study of histology as we know it, because most individual cells in a tissue weren’t visible in
your average scope. It took another breakthrough -- the invention of stains and dyes -- to make that possible. To actually see a
specimen under a microscope, you have to first preserve, or fix it, then slice it into super-thin, deli-meat-like sections that let the
light through, and then stain that material to enhance its contrasts. Because different stains latch on to different cellular
structures, this process lets us see what’s going on in any given tissue sample, down to the specific parts of each individual cell.
Some stains let us clearly see cells’ nuclei -- and as you learn to identify different tissues, the location, shape, size, or even
 absence of nuclei will be very important. Now, Leeuwenhoek was technically the first person to use a dye -- one he made from
saffron -- to study biological structures under the scope in 1673, because the dude was a boss.

c. But it really wasn’t until nearly 200 years later, in the 1850s, that we really got the first true histological stain. And for that we can
thank German anatomist Joseph von Gerlach. Back in his day, a few scientists had been tinkering with staining tissues, especially
with a compound called carmine -- a red dye derived from the scales of a crushed-up insects. Gerlach and others had some luck
using carmine to highlight different kinds of cell structures, but where Gerlach got stuck was in exploring the tissues of the brain.
For some reason, he couldn’t get the dye to stain brain cells, and the more stains he used, the worse the results were. So one day,
he tried making a diluted version of the stain -- thinning out the carmine with Ammonia and gelatin -- and wetted a sample of brain
tissue with it.
Alas, still nothing.

So he closed up his lab for the night, and, as the story goes, in his disappointment, he forgot to remove the slice of someone’s
cerebellum that he had left sitting in the He returned the next morning to find the long, slow soak in diluted carmine had stained
all kinds of structures inside the tissue -- including the nuclei of individual brain cells and what he described as “fibers” that
seemed to link the cells together. It would be another 30 years before we knew what a neuron really looked like, but Gerlach’s
famous neural stain was a breakthrough in our understanding of nervous tissue. AND it showed other anatomists how the
combination of the right microscope and the right stain could open up our understanding of all of our body’s tissues and how they
make life possible.

Today, we recognize the cells Gerlach studied as a type of nervous tissue, which forms, you guessed it, the nervous system -- that is, the
brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system, and the network of nerves in your peripheral nervous system. Combined, they regulate
and control all of your body’s functions. That basic nervous tissue has two big functions -- sensing stimuli and sending electrical impulses
throughout the body, often in response to those stimuli. And this tissue also is made up of two different cell types -- neurons and glial cells.

NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS

Neurons are the specialized building blocks of the nervous system. It's the neurons in your skin’s nervous tissue that sense that
stimuli, and send the message to your brain. No matter where they are, though, each neuron has the same anatomy, consisting of the cell
body, the dendrites, and the axon. The cell body, or soma, is the neuron’s life support. It’s got all the necessary goods like a nucleus,
mitochondria, and DNA. The bushy dendrites look like the trees that they’re named after, and collect signals from other cells to send back to
the soma. The long, rope-like axon is the transmission cable -- it carries messages to other neurons, and muscles, and glands. Together all
of these things combine to form nerves of all different sizes laced throughout your body. The other type of nervous cells, the glial cells, are
like the neuron’s pit crew, providing support, insulation, and protection, and tethering them to blood vessels. But sensing the world around
you isn't much use if you can't do anything about it, which is why we've also got muscle tissues.

Unlike your nervous tissues, your muscle tissues can contract and move. Muscle tissue is well-vascularized, meaning it’s got a lot of blood
coming and going, and it comes in three flavors: skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
a. Your skeletal muscle tissue is what attaches to all the bones in your skeleton, supporting you and keeping your posture in line.
Skeletal muscle tissues pull on bones or skin as they contract to make your body move. You can see how skeletal muscle tissue
has long, cylindrical cells. It looks kind of clean and smooth, with obvious striations that resemble little pinstripes. Many of the
actions made possible in this tissue -- like your wide range of facial expressions or pantheon of dance moves -- are voluntary.
b. Your cardiac muscle tissue, on the other hand, works involuntarily. Which is great, because it forms the walls of your heart, and it
would be really distracting to have to remind it to contract once every second. This tissue is only found in your heart, and its
regular contractions are what propel blood through your circulatory system. Cardiac muscle tissue is also striped, or striated, but
unlike skeletal muscle tissue, their cells are generally uninucleate, meaning that they have just one nucleus. You can also see that
this tissue is made of a series of sort of messy cell shapes that look they divide and converge, rather than running parallel to each
other.But where these cells join end-to-end you can see darker striations, These are the glue that hold the muscle cells together
when they contract, and they contain pores so that electrical and chemical signals can pass from one cell to the next.
c. And finally, we’ve got the smooth muscle tissue, which lines the walls of most of your blood vessels and hollow organs, like those
in your digestive and urinary tracts, and your uterus. It’s called smooth because, as you can see, unlike the other two, it lacks
striation. Its cells are sort of short and tapered at the ends, and are arranged to form tight-knit sheets. This tissue is also
involuntary, because like the heart, these organs squeeze substances through by alternately contracting and relaxing, without you
having to think about it.

Let’s begin with this. Which type of tissue is it?

1. The cells are striated. Each cell only has one nucleus. But the giveaway here is probably the cells’ branching structure; where their
offshoots meet with other nearby cells where they form those intercalated discs. It's cardiac muscle.
2. They're uninucleate cells, too, and they also are packed pretty closely together BUT no striations. They’re smooth, so this is
smooth muscle.
3. Leaving us with an easy one -- long, and straight cells with obvious striations AND multiple nuclei. This could only be skeletal
muscle tissue.
 PART 2: EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Link: Tissues, Part 2 - Epithelial Tissue: Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology #3 - YouTube

This is the tissue that lines, and covers, and generally organizes your body, creating order from what would be chaos. Without epithelial
tissue, you’d essentially be a mushy pile of unarticulated goo. When we talk about your epithelial tissue we’re really talking about two things.
There’s the “proper” epithelium, which covers and lines your outer and inner body. The glandular epithelium, which forms glands and
secretes hormones and other substances. Your primary epithelium protects your whole body, inside and out. It’s a great organizer,
partitioning everything into separate but connected units. It covers the surface of your body when it combines with connective tissue to
create skin, but it also lines your body cavities, and coats the internal and external walls of many of your organs.

The latex is like the outer covering of your body, in part made up of epithelial tissue. It separates what’s inside the balloon from the rest of the
world. Now if I stick my hand in there, you can see how, while the tissue still forms an outer layer, it also folds in on itself, creating a
continuous barrier that lines all of the cavities. In a very similar way, the membranes covering your lungs for example, are actually
invaginations of your epithelium -- where the tissue that makes up it folds to form a cavity -- just like this balloon when I push my fingers into
it. The epithelium does all this to protect your deeper layers of tissue from injury or infection -- like, for example, by lining your stomach with
epithelial cells that produce mucus, so that you don’t digest yourself along with your lunch. And all of your epithelial tissues are avascular --
meaning they don't have a blood supply. Instead they rely on the blood supply in the supporting connective tissues around them for the
materials they need. But these tissues come in different varieties that serve different purposes. And a lot of what classifies the different
types of epithelium boils down to their shape and layering -- that is, the shape of the individual cells, and the number of layers that they form
in.

And there are three basic shapes -- squamous, cuboidal, and columnar. Their names actually describe what they look like! Also, the shape of
each kind of epithelial cell correlates with its function.
1. Squamous cells are flat. Their name means “scale,” and they look kind of squished, like fish scales. Even the cell’s nucleus, which
gets darkly stained and is usually easy to see, is flattened. Squamous cells are flat, which makes it easy for materials like oxygen
to move across them to the other side. So we see these kinds of cells where absorption or transportation is most important, like in
say, the air sacs of your lungs, or in your blood vessels. If the cells that make up a tissue need to, say, brew up hormones or
mucus, they’ll need the internal machinery it takes to make that stuff, and that takes up a lot of space. So those cells can’t be flat --
they’ve got to be cuboidal or columnar to accommodate more room for taking care of business.
2. Cuboidal cells are cube-ish shaped, about as tall as they are wide. They absorb nutrients and produce secretions, like sweat.
Their nucleus is pretty circular.
3. Columnar cells are tall and thick and look like columns, and they cushion underlying tissues. And as if they were cuboidal cells
that got stretched tall, their nuclei also are stretched into an ellipse. So that stomach lining that I mentioned, for example, is made
up of big columnar cells, because they have to make and secrete mucus.

General Information: But when it comes to what kind of cells are found where, an important thing to keep in mind is the fact that cells are,
biologically speaking, expensive -- they take a lot of time and energy and raw materials to make. So in places where you lose a lot of cells, like
your outer skin, or in your mouth, you have more squamous cells -- because they’re smaller, and flatter, and therefore cheaper, practically
disposable -- rather than big, expensive cuboidal or columnar ones.

Layering

Which brings me to the other trait that we use to classify epithelial tissue -- its layering. A simple epithelium has only one layer of cells. A
stratified type has multiple layers set on top of each other, like the bricks and mortar of a wall. And pseudostratified epithelium is mostly
just one layer, but the cells can be different shapes and sizes, and the nuclei can be at lots of different levels, so it looks sort of messy and
multilayered.

Naming a type of Epithelial Tissue

When we describe a type of epithelial tissue, like in a lab setting, we cite both its shape and its layering. You can think of a tissue’s first name
as its number of layers, and its last name as the shape of its cells. For example, a simple squamous epithelium refers to a single layer of flat,
scale-like cells, like the lining of the air sacs deep in your lungs. A stratified cuboidal tissue, meanwhile, would have layers of cube-shaped
cells, like the linings of the ducts that leak sweat and spit. When you put the shape of a cell together with its type of layering, you can begin
to see how both traits inform the function of your epithelial tissue.

Features of Epithelial Cells:

Let’s go back to those squamous cells. Because they’re thin, like scales, it takes many layers of them to form a tissue that’s thick enough to
offer protection. So you end up with a really dense stack of cells that, on an individual basis, are small and cheap to make. That’s why when I,
like, scratch my hand or hit the inside of my mouth with a toothbrush, I can lose a couple of layers, no big deal. Those squamous cells are a
dime a dozen. There's still lots of layers left. Plus, epithelial tissue regenerates really quickly. But if you, say, get tossed off a moving
motorcycle, you’ll lose a lot more layers. And if your road rash is really bad, you could scrape all the way through all of those squamous cells,
down to the nerves and the blood and all of the underlying connective tissue, plowing through a lot more expensive cells.

Of course, when we talk about epithelial tissue protecting you, it’s not always protecting you from the outside world. It also creates order
among all of those rambunctious seventh graders that are your organs. And here it’s important to note that all of your epithelial cells are
polar, meaning they have distinct sides. The apical or upper side, is exposed to either the outside of your body, or whatever internal cavity it’s
lining. The basal side, or inner surface, is tightly attached to the basement membrane, a thin layer of mostly collagen fibers that helps hold
the epithelium together, and anchors it to the next-deeper layer -- your connective tissue. Many of these boundaries that the cells form aren’t
absolute -- instead, they’re selectively permeable, allowing for some level of absorption, filtration, and excretion of substances. The tissue
lining your small intestines, for instance, is what allows you to absorb nutrients through diffusion and active transport, so that's pretty
important. And all of your urinary waste gets filtered through a different epithelial lining in your kidneys. So by now you’re probably starting to
get it: Every interaction that your body has with the rest of the physical universe is made possible somehow by your epithelium.

Remember: Your glands are also made up largely of epithelial tissue, so it ALSO plays a big role in facilitating all of your secretions -- from
sweat and mucus, to hormones and enzymes. This glandular epithelium forms two different kinds of glands -- your endocrine glands, the
ones that secrete hormones right into your bloodstream or to nearby cells, and your exocrine glands, the type that secrete their juices into
tubes or ducts that lead to the outside of the body, or the inside of your tube, rather than right into the blood. The hormone thyroxin, for
example, is secreted by an endocrine gland -- your thyroid -- and it needs to be distributed throughout the entire body so that it can stimulate
the metabolism in all of your cells. Some examples of exocrine secretions would be sweat, saliva, mucus, stomach acid, and milk, if you’re
lactating. All those secretions go right into ducts where they’re ferried to an epithelial surface -- which could be your outer layer of skin, in the
case of your sweat, or the edge of your stomach lining if it’s your stomach acid.