Physics

Investigatory

Project

Rough draft

OPTOELECTRONIC
DEVICES(LED, SOLAR
CELL, PHOTODIODE)
 Rahul Sehrawat

XII-A

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to

the principal, Dr. Sheetal Mann, Modern Convent School
for her encouragement and for all the facilities that she
provided for this project work. I sincerely appreciate this
magnanimity by taking me into her fold for which I shall
remain indebted to her. I extend my hearty thanks to Ms.
Deepali Jain, my physics teacher who guided me to the
successful completion of this project. I take this opportunity
to express my deep sense of gratitude for her invaluable
guidance, constant encouragement, immense motivation
which has sustained my efforts at all stages of my project
work.
This is to certify that the
physics project titled
“investigatory project on
optoelectronic devices” has been
successfully completed by Rahul
Sehrawat
Of class XII-A, in partial
fulfilment of circumstances of
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY
EDUCATION (CBSE) leading to the
award of annual examination in
the year
2019-20.
 Topic Page Teacher’s
number signature
Introduction 4
Theory 6
p-n junction 9
Semiconductor 11
diode
Theory of 13
project
Experiment 17
Applications 20
Bibliography 22
Optoelectronics is the study and application
of electronic devices and systems that source, detect
and control light. Semiconductor diodes in which
carriers are generated by photons (photo-excitation) are
called optoelectronic devices. It includes the study,
design and manufacture of a hardware device that
converts electrical energy into light and light into
energy through semiconductors. Light often includes
invisible forms of radiation such as gamma rays, X-
rays, ultraviolet and infrared, in addition to visible light.

p-n junction are an integral part of several

optoelectronic devices

Some examples of photoelectronic devices:

1. Photodiode:
A photo diode is a
semiconductor light sensor that generates a
voltage or current when light falls on the
junction. It consists of an active P-N
junction, which is operated in reverse bias.
When a photon with plenty of energy strikes
the semiconductor, an electron or hole pair
is created. The electrons diffuse to the
junction to form an electric field.
2. Solar cells:
A solar cell or photo-voltaic
cell is an electronic device that directly
converts sun’s energy into electricity. When
sunlight falls on a solar cell, it produces
both a current and a voltage to produce
electric power. Sunlight, which is composed
of photons, radiates from the sun. When
photons hit the silicon atoms of the solar
cell, they transfer their energy to lose
electrons; and then, these high-energy
electron flow to an external circuit.
3. Light emitting diodes(LED):
Light emitting diode is a P-N
semiconductor diode in which the
recombination of electrons and holes yields
a photon. When the diode is electrically
biased in the forward direction, it emits
incoherent narrow spectrum light. When a
voltage is applied to the leads of the LED,
the electrons recombine with the holes
within the device and release energy in the
 form of photons. This effect is called as
electroluminescence. It is the conversion of
electrical energy into light. The color of
the light is decided by the energy band gap
of the material.

THEORY

Substances on the basis of

conductivity

Conductors
Insulators Semiconductors
They possess very low
resistivity ( or high They have resistivity or
They have high resistivity
conductivity) conductivity intermediate
(or low conductivity) to metals and insulators

Semiconductor:
A solid substance that has a conductivity between that of an
insulator and that of most metals, either due to the addition
of an impurity or because of temperature effects. Devices
made of semiconductors, notably silicon, are essential
components of most electronic devices. When a small
amount, say, a few parts per million (ppm), of a suitable
impurity is added to the pure semiconductor, the
conductivity of the semiconductor is increased manifold.
Such materials are known as extrinsic semiconductors or
impurity semiconductors.
(i) Elemental semiconductors: Si and Ge
(ii) Compound semiconductors: Examples are :
(a) Inorganic: CdS, GaAs, CdSe ,InP, etc.
(b) Organic: anthracene, doped pthalocyanines, etc.
(c) Organic polymers: polypyrrole, polyaniline,
polythiopene, etc. Most of the currently available
semiconductor devices are based on elemental
semiconductors Si or Ge and compound inorganic
semiconductors.
The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called
doping and the impurity atoms are called dopants. Such a
material is also called a doped semiconductor. The dopant
has to be such that it does not distort the original pure
semiconductor lattice. It occupies only a very few of the
original semiconductor atom sites in the crystal. A necessary
condition to attain this is that the sizes of the dopant and the
semiconductor atoms should nearly be the same.
There are 2 types of dopants used in doping the tetravalent Si
or Ge:
1. Pentavalent (valency 5), like Arsenic (As), Antimony
(Sb), Phosphorus (P), etc.
2. Trivalent (valency 3), like Indium (In), Boron (B),
Aluminium (Al), etc.
Si or Ge belongs to the fourth group in the periodic table
and, therefore, we choose the dopant element from nearby
fifth or third group, expecting and taking care that the size
of the dopant atom is nearly and same as that of Si or Ge.
Interestingly, the pentavalent and trivalent dopants in Si or
Ge give two entirely different types.

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS
An n-type semiconductor is created by adding pentavalent
impurities like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.
The impurities are called dopants. The purpose of doing this
is to make more charge carriers, or electron wires available
in the material for conduction. In n-type semiconductors the
number of electrons is more than the holes, so electrons are
measured as majority charge carriers and holes are referred
to as minority charge carriers.

n-type semiconductors are manufactured by doping

‘intrinsic’ or pure semiconductor material. The amount of
impurity added is very small compared to the amount of
semiconductor. The characteristics and nature of the
resultant semiconductor can be controlled the quantity of
dopant.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped, that
is, into which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it
different electrical properties than the intrinsic (pure)
semiconductor. This doping involves adding dopant atoms to
an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes the electron and
hole carrier.

n-type semiconductors are made by doping the pure

semiconductor material. The amount of impurity added is
very small compared to the amount of semiconductor. The
exact character of the semiconductor can be changed by
varying the amount of ‘dopant’ that is added.

P-N JUNCTION
A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two
semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-
type, inside a semiconductor. The p-side or the positive side
of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side or
the negative side has an excess of electrons. In a
semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of
doping.
FORMATION:-

Consider a thin p-type silicon semiconductor sheet. If we

add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of
the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet
will now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a
junction between these two regions.

The processes that follow after the formation of a p-n

junction are of two types- diffusion and drift. As we know,
there Is a difference in the concentration of holes and
electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-
side diffuse to the n-side and electrons from the n-side
diffuse to the p-side. This gives rise to a diffusion current
across the junction. Whenever an electron diffuses from the
n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on the n-
side, which is immobile. As the process goes on, a layer of
positive charge is developed on the n-side of the junction.
Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, an
ionized acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the
formation of a layer of negative charges in the p-side of the
junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge
on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion
region. Due to this positive space charge region on either
side of the junction, an electric field direction from positive
charge towards negative charge is developed. Due to this
electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves
to the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed as the
drift. Here, we see that the direction of drift current is
opposite to that of the diffusion current.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that has a low
resistance to the flow of current in one direction thus allowing the
passage of current in one direction whereas a high resistance in the
other, thus restricting the flow of current in that direction.
Semiconductor diodes are two terminal devices that consist of a p-
n junction and metallic contacts at their two ends.
Here, the direction of the arrow indicates the permissible direction
of the current. By applying an external voltage V we can vary the
potential barrier.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE UNDER FORWARD BIAS:

When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor

diode in such a way that the p-side is connected to the negative
terminal, then the semiconductor diode is said to be forward
biased. In this case, the built-in potential of the diode and thus the
width of the depletion region decreases and the height of the
barrier gets reduced.

The overall barrier voltage, in this case, comes out to be V0-V,

which is the difference between the built-in potential and the
applied potential. As we supply a small amount of voltage, the
reduction in the barrier voltage from the above-given formula is
very less and thus only a small number of current carriers cross the
junction in this case. Whereas, if the potential is increased by a
significant value, the reduction of the barrier height will be more
thus allowing the passage of more number of carriers.

P-N JUNCTION DIODE UNDER REVERSE BIAS:

When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor
diode in such a way that the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to its n-side and the negative terminal of the battery is
connected to the p-side of the diode, then it is said to be in the
condition of reverse bias. When an external voltage is applied
across the diode, as the direction of the external voltage is the same
as that of the barrier potential, the total voltage barrier sump up to
be (V0+V). Also, the width of the depletion region increases. As a
result of this, the motion of carriers from one side of the junction to
another decreases significantly.

THEORY OF THE PROJECT

Optoelectronic junction devices:
Semiconductor diode behaves under applied electrical inputs. In
optoelectronic junctions, semiconductors diodes are those in which
carriers are generated by photons(photo-excitation).

PHOTODIODE:
Photodiode is a special purpose p-n junction diode fabricated with
a transparent window to allow light to fall on the diode. It is
operated under reverse bias.
When the photodiode is illuminated with light (photons) with
energy (hv) greater than the energy gap of the semiconductor, then
electron-hole pairs are generated due to the absorption of photons.
The diode is fabricated such that the generation of e-h pairs takes
place in or near the depletion region of the diode. Due to electric
field of the junction, electrons and holes are separated before they
recombine. The direction of the electric field is such that electrons
reach n-side and holes reach p-side. Electrons are collected on the
n-side and holes are collected on the p-side giving rise to emf.
When an external load is connected, current flows. The magnitude
of the photocurrent depends on the intensity of incident light
(photocurrent is proportional to incident light intensity). It is easier
to observe the change in the current with change in the light
intensity, if a reverse bias is applied. Thus photodiode can be used
as a photodetector to detect optical signals.

Light emitting diodes(LED):

It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits
spontaneous radiation.
The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that emitted
light can come out. When the diode is forward biased, electrons are
sent from n to p (where they are minority carriers) and holes are
sent from p to n (where they are minority carriers). At the junction
boundary the concentration of minority carriers increases
compared to the equilibrium concentration (i.e., when there is no
bias). Thus at the junction boundary on either side of the junction,
excess minority carriers are there which recombine with majority
carriers near the junction.
On recombination, the energy is released in the form of photons.
Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap are
emitted. When the forward current of the diode is small, the
intensity of light emitted is small. As the forward current increases,
intensity of light increases and reaches maximum. Further increase
in the forward current results in decrease of light intensity. LEDs
are biased such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum. The
V-I characteristics of a LED is similar to that of a Si junction
diode. But the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly
different for each colour.

SOLAR CELL:
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when
solar radiations falls on the p-n junction. It works on the same
principle (photovoltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no
external bias is applied and the junction area is kept much larger
for solar radiation to be incident because we are interested in more
power.
Sunlight, consisting of small packets of energy termed as photons,
strikes the cell, where it is either reflected, transmitted or absorbed.
When the photons are absorbed by the negative solar cell, the
energy of the photon gets transferred to an electron in an atom of
the cell. With the increase in energy, the electron escapes the outer
shell of the atom. The free electron naturally migrates to the
positive layer creating a potential difference between the positive
and the negative layer. When the two layers are connected to an
external circuit, the electron flows through the circuit creating a
current.
 EXPERIMENT

AIM:
To plot V-I characteristic curve of optoelectronic junction devices-
photodiode, LED and Solar Cell

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires, bulb, key, P-N junction
diode.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Clean connecting wires with sand paper in order to remove
insulation.
3. Check if ammeter and voltmeter readings are at zero.

OBSERVATIONS
 1. Photodiode

Potential difference(V) Current (I)

2. LED

Potential difference(V) Current (I)

3. Solar Cell
Potential difference(V) Current (I)

RESULT
1. Photodiode
The graph of V-I characteristics curve photodiode is shown
as graph 1.
2. LED
The graph of V-I characteristics curve
Of LED is shown as graph 2.
3. Solar Cell
The graph of V-I characteristics curve
Of Solar Cell is shown as graph 3.

PRECAUTIONS
1. Clean the ends of connecting wires properly using sand
paper.
2. All connections should be tight and clean.
3. Forward and reverse biasing should not be left unchecked.
4. Take voltmeter and ammeter of suitable ranges.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The biasing could be incorrect.
2. Faulty kit.
Photodiodes find application in the following:
i. Camera
ii. Medical devices
iii. Safety equipment
iv. Optical communication devices
v. Position sensors
vi. Bar code scanners
vii. Automotive devices
viii. Surveying instruments
ix. As a photo detector to detect optical signals

LEDs have the following advantages over conventional

incandescent low power lamps:
i. Low operational voltage and less power
ii. Fast action and no warm-up time required
iii. The bandwidth of emitted light is 100 Å to 500Å or in
other words it is nearly (but not exactly) monochromatic.
iv. Long life and ruggedness
v. Fast on-off witching capability

Solar Cells are used in:

i. Toys, watches and calculators
ii. Electric fences
iii. Remote lighting systems
iv. Water pumping
v. Water treatment
vi. Emergency power
vii. To power electronic devices in satellites and space
vehicles.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. NCERT books
2. http://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com
3. www.topperlearning.com
4. http://osioptoelectronics.com
5. www.unacademy.com
6. https://byjus.com
7. www.google.com
8. www.wikipedia.com
9. S.L. ARORA class 12 physics book