Session: 2020-21

PHYSICS
INVESTIGATOR
Y PROJECT
TOPIC:
NUCLEI
NAME: Aman Rawat
th
CLASS: 12
ROLL NO: 21
GUIDED BY: Mr.R.S. Kholia
CERTIFICATE
IT IS HEREBY TO CERTIFY THAT, THE
ORIGINAL & GENUINE INVESTIGATION
WORK HAS BEEN CARRIED OUT TO
INVESTIGATE ABOUT THE SUBJECT MATTER
& THE RELATED DATA COLLECTION &
INVESTIGATION HAS BEEN COMPLETED
SOLELY, SINCERELY & SATISFACTORILY BY
AMAN RAWAT OF CLASS 12TH(PCM) ,
JAWAHAR NAVODAYA VIDYALAYA
POKHAL, TEHRI GARHWAL, REGARDING HIS
PROJECT TITLED “NUCLEI”.

TEACHER
SIGNATURE
 Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my teacher Mr. R.S.kholia as
well as our principal Mr. Adesh Kumar who
gave me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project on the topic Nuclei, which
also helped me in doing a lot of Research
and I came to know about so many new
things I am really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my
parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time
frame.

Aman Rawat
 INDEX
Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering
Experiment
Composition of Nucleus
Binding Energy and Binding
Energy per Nucleon
Binding Energy Curve and
Inferences
Radioactivity
Radioactive Decay
Radioactive Disintegration
Constant and Half-Life Period
Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment

 They took a thin
gold foil having a
thickness of 2.1×10-
7
 m and placed it in
the centre of a
rotatable detector
made of zinc sulfide and a microscope. Then, they
directed a beam of 5.5MeV alpha particles emitted from a
radioactive source at the foil. Lead bricks collimated these
alpha particles as they passed through them.After hitting
the foil, the scattering of these alpha particles could be
studied by the brief flashes on the screen. Rutherford and
his team expected to learn more about the structure of the
atom from the results of this experiment.

OBSERVATIONS:
 Most of the alpha particles passed through the foil
without suffering any collisions
 Around 0.14% of the incident alpha particles
scattered by more than 1o
 Around 1 in 8000 alpha particles deflected by more
than 90o

CONCLUSIONS & ARGUMENTS:

The results of this experiment were not in sync with the
plum-pudding model of the atom as suggested by
Thomson.

Rutherford concluded that since alpha particles are

positively charged, for them to be deflected back, they
needed a large repelling force. He further argued that for
this to happen, the positive charge of the atom needs to be
concentrated in the centre, unlike scattered in the earlier
accepted model.

Alpha Particle Trajectory

The trajectory traced by an alpha particle depends on the

impact parameter of the collision. The impact parameter is
simply the perpendicular distance of each alpha particle
from the centre of the nucleus. Since in a beam all alpha
particles have the same kinetic energy, the scattering of
these particles depends solely on the impact parameter.

Hence, the particles with a small impact parameter or the

particles closer to the nucleus, experience large angle of
scattering. On the other hand, those with a large impact
parameter suffer no deflection or scattering at all. Finally,
those particles having ~zero impact parameter or a head-
on collision with the nucleus rebound back.
Composition of Nucleus

The Nucleus of an atom consists of a tightly packed

arrangement of protons and neutrons. These are the two
heavy particles in an atom and hence 99.9% of the mass
is concentrated in the nucleus.
Of the two, the protons possess a net positive charge and
hence the nucleus of an atom is positively charged on the
whole and the negatively charged electrons revolve
around the central nucleus.
Since the mass concentration at the nucleus of an atom is
immense the nuclear forces holding the protons and the
neutrons together are also large. The protons are in such
close vicinity to each other inside the tiny nucleus and
therefore the electrostatic forces of repulsion also act
inside the nucleus.
Nuclear energy relies on nothing but releasing the energy
trapped in the nucleus of an atom. The total number of
protons in a nucleus is equal to the number of electrons
revolving around the nucleus and hence the atom, on the
whole, is electrically neutral.
Nuclear Binding Energy:
We know that the nucleus is made up of protons
and neutrons. So, logically, the mass of the nucleus = the
sum of masses of the protons and neutrons, right? Not
really! The nuclear mass (M) is always less than this sum.
To e=understand this better, let’s look at an example,
16
O has 8 protons and 8 neutrons. Now,
8

 Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u

 Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u
 Mass of 8 electrons = 8 × 0.00055 u
Therefore the expected mass of 168O nucleus = = 8 ×
2.01593 u = 16.12744 u.

We know from mass spectroscopy experiments that the

atomic mass of 168O is 15.99493u. Subtracting the mass
of 8 electrons from this, we get the experimental mass
of 168O nucleus = 15.99053u (15.99493u – [8 x
0.00055u]). Hence, we see that there is a difference
between the two numbers of 0.13691u (16.12744 u –
15.99053u).

In simple words, the mass of the 168O nucleus is less than

the total mass of its constituents by 0.13691u. This
difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents is
called the mass defect (ΔM) and is given by

ΔM = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – M … (2)

The mass of an oxygen nucleus < the sum of masses of its
protons and neutrons (in an unbounded state). Therefore,
the equivalent energy of the oxygen nucleus < the sum of
the equivalent energies of its constituents.

We can also say that if you want to break down an oxygen

nucleus into 8 protons and 8 neutrons, then you must
provide the extra energy (ΔMc2). The relation between
this energy (Eb) to the mass defect (ΔM) is derived from
Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation
{equation (1)}. Therefore,

Eb = ΔMc2 … (3)

In other words, if certain protons and neutrons are brought

together to form a nucleus of a certain charge and mass,
then an energy Eb is released in the process. This energy is
called the Binding Energy of the nucleus. So, if we want
to separate a nucleus into protons and neutrons, then we
will need to provide an energy Eb to the particles.

Binding Energy per Nucleon:

A more useful measure of the binding between protons
and neutrons is the binding energy per nucleon or Ebn. It is
the ratio of the binding energy of a nucleus to the number
of nucleons in the nucleus:

Ebn = Eb/A … (4)

where Eb is the binding energy of the nucleus and A is the
number of nucleons in it. So, the binding energy per
nucleon is the average energy per nucleon needed to
separate a nucleus into its individual nucleons. Let’s look
at a plot of the binding energy per nucleon versus the
mass number for a large number of nuclei:

Observations:

 The maximum binding energy per nucleon is around

8.75 MeV for mass number (A) = 56.
 The minimum binding energy per nucleon is around
7.6 MeV for mass number (A) = 238.
 For 30 < A < 170, Ebn is nearly constant.
 Ebn is low for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy
nuclei (A > 170)

Results:
The force is attractive in nature and very strong
producing a binding energy of around a few MeV per
nucleon.

Why is Ebn nearly constant in the range 30 < A < 170?

The answer is simple – the nuclear force is short-
ranged. Now, imagine a really large nucleus. A nucleon
(NA) in this nucleus will be influenced only by some of
its neighbours. These neighbours are those which lie in
the short-range of the nuclear force. This means that all
 nucleons
beyond
the range
of the
nuclear
force
form
NA will
have no
influence on the binding energy of NA. So, we can
conclude that if a nucleon has ‘p’ neighbours within the
range of the nuclear force, then its binding energy is
proportional to ‘p’.
In the same large nucleus, if we increase the mass
number (A) by adding nucleons, it will not change the
binding energy of NA. Why? Because, in a large
nucleus, most of the nucleons lie inside it and not on
the surface. Hence, the change in binding energy, if
any, would be negligibly small.
Remember, the binding energy per nucleon is a
constant and is equal to pk, where k is a constant
having the dimensions of energy. Also, the property
that a given nucleon influences only nucleons close to it
is also referred to as saturation property of the nuclear
force.
Next, imagine a very heavy nucleus having A = 240.
This has a low binding energy. Therefore, if a nucleus A
= 240 breaks down into two A = 120 nuclei, then the
nucleons get bound more tightly. Also, in the process
 energy is released. This concept is used in Nuclear
Fission.

On the other hand, imagine two very light nuclei with A

< 10. If these two nuclei were to join to form a heavier
nucleus, then the binding energy per nucleon of the
fused and heavier nucleus is more than the Ebn of the
lighter nuclei.

So, the nucleons are more tightly bound post fusion.

And, energy is released in the process. This is how the
Sun works!

Radioactive decay:

Process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses

energy by radiation. A material containing unstable
nuclei is considered radioactive. Three of the most
common types of decay are alpha decay, beta decay, and
 gamma decay, all of which involve
emitting one or
more particles or photons.
Radioactive decay is a stochastic (i.e.
random) process at the level of single
atoms. According to quantum theory, it is impossible to
predict when a particular atom will decay, regardless of
how long the atom has existed. However, for a
significant number of identical atoms, the overall decay
rate can be expressed as a decay constant or as half-life.
The half-lives of radioactive atoms have a huge range;
from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of
the universe.
The decaying nucleus is called
the parent radionuclide (or parent radioisotope), and the
process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except
for gamma decay or internal conversion from a
nuclear excited state, the decay is a nuclear
transmutation resulting in a daughter containing a
different number of protons or neutrons (or both). When
the number of protons changes, an atom of a
different chemical element is created.
 Alpha decay occurs when the nucleus ejects an alpha
particle (helium nucleus).
 Beta decay occurs in two ways;
o (i) beta-minus decay, when the nucleus emits an
electron and an antineutrino in a process that
changes a neutron to a proton, or
 o (ii) beta-plus decay, when the nucleus emits
a positron and a neutrino in a process that changes a
proton to a neutron.
 In gamma decay a radioactive nucleus first decays by
the emission of an α or β particle. The daughter
nucleus that results is usually left in an excited state
and it can decay to a lower energy state by emitting a
gamma ray photon.
 In Neutron emission highly excited neutron-rich
nuclei, formed due to other types of decay,
occasionally lose energy by way of neutron emission,
resulting in a change from one isotope to another of the
same element.
 In Electron capture The nucleus may capture an
orbiting electron, causing a proton to convert into a
neutron in a process called electron capture. All of
these processes result in a well-defined nuclear
transmutation.
By contrast, there are radioactive decay processes that do
not result in a nuclear transmutation. The energy of an
excited nucleus may be emitted as a gamma ray in a
process called gamma decay, or that energy may be lost
when the nucleus interacts with an orbital electron
causing its ejection from the atom, in a process
called internal conversion. Another type of radioactive
decay results in products that vary, appearing as two or
more "fragments" of the original nucleus with a range of
possible masses. This decay, called spontaneous fission,
happens when a large unstable nucleus spontaneously
splits into two (or occasionally three) smaller daughter
nuclei, and generally leads to the emission of gamma
rays, neutrons, or other particles from those products. In
contrast, decay products from a nucleus with spin may be
distributed non-isotropically with respect to that spin
direction. Either because of an external influence such as
an electromagnetic field, or because the nucleus was
produced in a dynamic process that constrained the
direction of its spin, the anisotropy may be detectable.
Such a parent process could be a previous decay, or
a nuclear reaction.
For a summary table showing the number of stable and
radioactive nuclides in each category, see radionuclide.
There are 28 naturally occurring chemical elements on
Earth that are radioactive, consisting of 34 radionuclides
(6 elements have 2 different radionuclides) that date
before the time of formation of the Solar System. These
34 are known as primordial nuclides. Well-known
examples are uranium and thorium, but also included are
naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such
as potassium-40.
Another 50 or so shorter-lived radionuclides, such
as radium-226 and radon-222, found on Earth, are the
products of decay chains that began with the primordial
nuclides, or are the product of
ongoing cosmogenic processes, such as the production
of carbon-14 from nitrogen-14 in the atmosphere
by cosmic rays. Radionuclides may also be produced
artificially in particle accelerators or nuclear reactors,
resulting in 650 of these with half-lives of over an hour,
and several thousand more with even shorter half-lives.
(See List of nuclides for a list of these sorted by half-
life.)
 Nuclear Fission:
heavy nuclei split by the capture of
neutrons.Most nuclei change little when
they undergo radioactive decay, retaining all
or almost all of their constituent protons and neutrons. In rare cases
however, heavy and unstable nuclei can break in two: a process
known as nuclear fission.The absorption of a neutron by a fissile
nucleus causes the nucleus to split into two radioactive fragments,
referred to as the fission products, and two or three secondary
neutrons.Spontaneous nuclear fission is an extremely rare
phenomenon. Much more common is the fission induced by the
capture of a neutron, a nuclear reaction which can be considered as a
disintegration into two fragments of the nucleus, triggered by this
capture. The neutron is the ideal projectile to use in this sort of
reaction, as its absence of charge allows it to be easily absorbed by the
heavy nucleus.
The heavy nuclei in which such a splitting occurs are known as
'fissile', and only a handful of these unstable elements exist. The only
fissile nucleus still present in nature is uranium 235, a rare isotope of
uranium with a half-life of 700 million years. Example: Nuclear
Reactor.

Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor, formerly known as an atomic pile, is a device used
to initiate and control a self-sustained nuclear chain reaction. Nuclear
reactors are used at nuclear power plants for electricity generation and
in nuclear marine propulsion. Heat from nuclear fission is passed to
a working fluid (water or gas), which in turn runs through steam
turbines. These either drive a ship's propellers or turn electrical
generators' shafts.
Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are
combined to form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic
particles (neutrons or protons). The difference in mass between the
reactants and products is manifested as either the release or absorption
of energy. This difference in mass arises due to the difference in
atomic "binding energy" between the atomic nuclei before and after
the reaction. Fusion is the process that powers active or "main
sequence" stars, or other high magnitude stars.

A fusion process that produces nuclei lighter than iron-56 or nickel-

62 will generally release energy. These elements have relatively small
mass per nucleon and large binding energy per nucleon. Fusion nuclei
lighter than these releases energy (an exothermic process), while
fusion of heavier nuclei results in energy retained by the product
nucleons, and the resulting reaction is endothermic.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Book referred
  NCERT Textbook
 Comprehensive Physics

 Websites referred
www.wikipedia.org
www.byjus.com