THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

(An investigation project report in PHYSICS (042) submitted

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the completion)

AISSCE 2023-24
By
NIFRAS AHAMED.M
AISSCE Roll No:

Under the supervision of

Mr. CHELLADURAI
PGT-Biology
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
POINT CALIMERE INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL
(Senior Secondary)
(Affiliated to CBSE-Vide Approval No: 1930551) No.41,
Melakadu, Kuruvapulam, Vedaranyam-614 808
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
S.NO TOPICS

I. INTRODUCTION

II. EMISSION MECHANISM

III. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION OF

PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

IV. THEORITICAL EXPLANATION

V. USES AND EFFECTS

VI. LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

VII. PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION

VIII PHOTON AND ITS EFFECTS ON METALS

IX. CONCLUSION
 INTRODUCTION
Photoelectric effect, phenomenon in which electrically charged particles
are released from or within a material when it absorbs electromagnetic
radiation. The effect is often defined as the ejection of electrons from
a metal plate when light falls on it. In a broader definition,
the radiant energy may be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light, X-rays,
or gamma rays; the material may be a solid, liquid, or gas; and the released
particles may be ions (electrically charged atoms or molecules) as well as
electrons. The phenomenon was fundamentally significant in the
development of modern physics because of the puzzling questions it raised
about the nature of light—particle versus wavelike behaviour—that were
finally resolved by Albert Einstein in 1905. The effect remains important for
research in areas from materials science to astrophysics, as well as forming
the basis for a variety of useful devices.
EMISSION MECHANISM
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, called photon
energy, which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the
photoemission process, when an electron within some material absorbs the
energy of a photon and acquires more energy than its binding energy, it is
likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to
escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light
will only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity
will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron.
Moreover, the energy of the emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity
of the incoming light of a given frequency, but only on the energy of the
individual photons.While free electrons can absorb any energy
when irradiated as long as this is followed by an immediate re-emission, like
in the Compton effect, in quantum systems all of the energy from one photon
is absorbed—if the process is allowed by quantum mechanics—or none at all.
Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic
binding, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as a free
particle.[3][4][5] Because electrons in a material occupy many different quantum
states with different binding energies, and because they can sustain energy
losses on their way out of the material, the emitted electrons will have a range
of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied states will have
the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from
the Fermi level.
When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the
term internal photoemission is often used, and emission into a vacuum is
distinguished as external photoemission.

EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATION OF
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily
observed from metals and other conductors. This is because the process
produces a charge imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results
in the increasing potential barrier until the emission completely ceases. The
energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide
layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on
the photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum
also helps observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their
flow between the electrodes.
As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much
ultraviolet light, the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by
burning magnesium or from an arc lamp. At the present time, mercury-vapor
lamps, noble-gas discharge UV lamps and radio-frequency
plasma sources,[6][7][8] ultraviolet lasers,[9] and synchrotron insertion
device[10] light sources prevail.
The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source,
a set of filters to monochromatize the light, a vacuum tube transparent to
ultraviolet light, an emitting electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector
(C) whose voltage VC can be externally controlled.
A positive external voltage is used to direct the
photoemitted electrons onto the collector. If the
frequency and the intensity of the incident
radiation are fixed, the photoelectric
current I increases with an increase in the positive
voltage, as more and more electrons are directed
onto the electrode. When no additional
photoelectrons can be collected, the photoelectric
current attains a saturation value. This current can
only increase with the increase of the intensity of
light.
An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the Schematic of the
highest-energy electrons from reaching the experiment to
collector. When no current is observed through the demonstrate the
tube, the negative voltage has reached the value photoelectric effect.
that is high enough to slow down and stop the Filtered,
most energetic photoelectrons of kinetic monochromatic light
Diagnosis
energy Kmaxand Testsvalue of the retarding voltage is
. This of a certain
called the stopping potential or cut wavelength strikes
off potential Vo.[11] Since the work done by the the emitting electrode
retarding potential in stopping the electron of (E) inside a vacuum
charge e is eVo, the following must tube. The collector
hold eVo = Kmax. electrode (C) is
The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its biased to a voltage
exact shape depends on the experimental geometry VC that can be set to
and the electrode material properties. attract the emitted
electrons, when
positive, or prevent
any of them from
reaching the collector
when negative.
For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of
incident radiation below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency
is called the threshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident
beam increases the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons,
and the stopping voltage has to increase. The number of emitted electrons may
also change because the probability that each photon results in an emitted
electron is a function of photon energy.
An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the
intensity is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons
impinging on the surface in a given time, increases the rate at which electrons
are ejected—the photoelectric current I—but the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a given metal
and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are
ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a
photoelectron is very small, less than 10−9 second. Angular distribution of the
photoelectrons is highly dependent on polarization (the direction of the
electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting material's quantum
properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and the electronic
band structure of crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order,
the distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of
linearly polarized light.[13] The experimental technique that can measure these
distributions to infer the material's properties is angle-resolved photoemission
spectroscopy.
 THEORETICAL EXPLANATION
In 1905, Einstein proposed a theory of the photo electric effect using a
concept that light consist of tiny packets of energy known as photons.Each
packets carries energy hv that is proportional to the frequency v of the
corresponding electromagnetic wave. The proportionality constant h has
become known as plank’s constant. In the range of kinetic energies of the
electrons that are removed from their varying atomic bindings by the
absorption of a photon of energy hv, the highest kinetic energy k max is

Here, W is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the

surface of the material. It is called the work function of the surface.

the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons becomes

Kinetic energy is positive, and v > v0 is required for the photoelectric effect
to occur.The frequency v0 is the threshold frequency for the given material.
Above that frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons as
well as the stopping voltage in the experiment
rise linearly with the frequency, and have no dependence on the
number of photons and the intensity of the impinging monochromatic light.
Einstein's formula, however simple, explained all the phenomenology of the
photoelectric effect, and had far-reaching consequences in the development of
quantum mechanics.
 USES AND EFFECTS
Photomultipliers
These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a
coated photocathode inside the envelope. The photo cathode contains
combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium, and antimony specially
selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by very
low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a
series of electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are
accelerated and substantially increased in number through secondary
emission to provide a readily detectable output current. Photomultipliers are
still commonly used wherever low levels of light must be detected.

Fig;Photomultipliers
Image sensors
Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric
effect, for example, Philo Farnsworth's "Image dissector" used a screen
charged by the photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a
scanned electronic signal.
Photoelectron spectroscopy
Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the
incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom,
molecule or solid, the binding energy can be determined by shining
a monochromatic X-ray or UV light of a known energy and measuring the
kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.[17] The distribution of electron energies
is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also be
used to determine the elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the
kinetic energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is
measured for the complete determination of the electronic band structure in
terms of the allowed binding energies and momenta of the electrons. Modern
instruments for angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy are capable of
measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV and 0.1°.
Photoelectron spectroscopy measurements are usually performed in a high-
vacuum environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas
molecules if they were present. However, some companies are now selling
products that allow photoemission in air. The light source can be a laser, a
discharge tube, or a synchrotron radiation source.[56]
The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron energy analyzer. It
uses an electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the
trajectories of incident electrons depending on their kinetic energies.

Fig;Photoelectron spectroscopy
Night vision devices
Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor material such
as gallium arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause the ejection of
photoelectrons due to the photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by
an electrostatic field where they strike a phosphor coated screen, converting
the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the signal is achieved either
through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of electrons
through secondary emissions, such as with a micro-channel plate. Sometimes
a combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required
to move an electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level.
This is known as the electron affinity of the photocathode and is another
barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden band, explained by the band
gap model. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an effective electron
affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials,
electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be
emitted from the material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick.
These materials are known as negative electron affinity materials.
Spacecraft
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a
positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft
are in shadow which will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge
from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical
components. The static charge created by the photoelectric effect is self-
limiting, because a higher charged object does not give up its electrons as
easily as a lower charged object does.

Fig;Spacecraft
Moon dust
Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged
from the photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off
the surface of the Moon by electrostatic levitation.This manifests itself
almost like an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of
distant features, and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was
first photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s, and most
recently the Chang'e 3 rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high
as about 28 cm. It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled
kilometers from the surface and that the particles move in "fountains" as
they charge and discharge.

LAWS OF PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
• For every given frequency of light, the photoelectric current is proportional
to the intensity of light; ( γ> γ Th).
• The discharge of photoelectrons stops completely below a particular
minimum (energy) frequency for a certain material, known as the threshold
frequency, regardless of the intensity of input light.
• The photoelectrons’ maximum kinetic energay rises as the frequency of the
incident light rises (assuming frequency γ> γ Th exceeds the threshold limit).
The maximum kinetic energy is independent of light intensity.
• Photo-emission is a phenomenon that occurs in a split second.
 PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION
• Photoelectric emission is the process of free electrons being emitted from a
metal surface when light is applied.
• The method by which free electrons are released from a metal when it
absorbs light energy is also defined. Photoemission, photoelectron emission,
and photoelectric effect are all terms used to describe photoelectric emission.
• Light, or photons, are utilised to extract free electrons from a solid metal in
this approach. As a result, photoelectrons are free electrons emitted from a
solid metal, and photoelectric current is the current created as a result of this
process.
PHOTONS AND ITS EFFECT ON METALS
The smallest particles of light are called photons. Photons, unlike electrons
and protons, have no mass. Photons, on the other hand, have energy.

Photons make up visible light and all other types of light, including radio
waves, microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays.
The energy of photons, on the other hand, is not the same for all of these
lights. Gamma rays (photons), for example, have greater energy than infrared
light (photons). The frequency of photons determines their energy, whereas
the quantity of photons determines the intensity of light.

The free electrons gain energy when light energy is imparted to the metal. In
other words, when light particles (photons) collide with free electrons in
metal, their energy is transferred to the free electrons. The liberated electrons
will strive to overcome the nuclei attracting force by gaining extra energy
from the light.
 CONCLUSION
A photon is a unit of light that is made up of constituent particles. Photons are
energy packets with a certain amount of motion, but their rest mass is zero.
We discovered that as the intensity of light increases, the photoelectron’s
maximum kinetic energy remains constant, while the photocurrent value
increases. For a given metal, the photoelectron’s maximum kinetic energy is
solely determined by the incident light’s frequency. The work function is the
amount of work that must be done in order for a metal to emit a photoelectron.
It is determined by the metal. The threshold frequency is the frequency of
light that is just enough to emit a photoelectron, ie. the photoelectron’s kinetic
energy is zero.