ABSTRACT

The photoelectric effect is a cornerstone textbook experiment in any Modern Physics or

Advanced Laboratory course, designed to verify Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect,
with the implicit determination of an experimental value for Planck’s constant and the
demonstration of the particle nature of light. The standard approach to the experiment is to
illuminate the light-sensitive cathode of a vacuum-tube photocell with monochromatic light of
known wavelengths; a reversed-voltage is then applied to the photocell and adjusted to bring
the photoelectric current to zero. The stopping voltage is then plotted as a function of the
inverse wavelength or frequency of the incident light, and Planck's constant is determined
from the slope of the graph.

Additionally, a value for the work function of the photocathode can be extracted from the
intercept. The commercial apparatus for the experiment is available from a number of
vendors (PASCO, Leybold) in various forms, degrees of performance and cost. However,
designing and assembling a photoelectric effect experiment apparatus can in itself be a
valuable experiential project-based undergraduate learning opportunity in Optics involving
both fundamental light and optics theory and practical optics and opto-mechanical design
aspects.

This presentation details a project undertaken in the Applied Physics/Engineering Physics

programs at Chandabali Mahavidyalaya involving students in a Modern Physics laboratory
course. The first phase of the project, discussed in detail in this paper, was a redesign of an
existing photoelectric effect apparatus through an undergraduate student thesis, currently in
advanced stages of completion. In a second phase of the project we plan to replicate the
newly assembled experimental apparatus up to as many as six identical stations and deploy
it in our Modern Physics lab course.

Typically, more than 50% of the students in this course are engineering majors who would
otherwise not get any significant exposure to problems of optics and optical design. We
believe that the modular design of the new apparatus together with a carefully redesigned
lab activity will allow us to have our students explore major aspects of optics and
optoelectronic design while performing this classic Modern Physics experiment.

***
INTRODUCTION
The Photoelectric Effect is the emission
of electrons when electromagnetic radiation, such
as light, hits a material. Electrons emitted in this manner
are called photoelectrons. The phenomenon is studied
in condensed matter physics, and solid
state and quantum chemistry to draw inferences about
the properties of atoms, molecules and solids. The effect
has found use in electronic devices specialized for light
detection and precisely timed electron emission.
Emission of Electrons
The experimental results disagree with classical electromagnetism, which predicts
that continuous light waves transfer energy to electrons, which would then be emitted when
they accumulate enough energy. An alteration in the intensity of light would theoretically
change the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons, with sufficiently dim light resulting in a
delayed emission. The experimental results instead show that electrons are dislodged only
when the light exceeds a certain frequency—regardless of the light's intensity or duration of
exposure. Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity does not build up the energy
required to produce photoelectrons, as would be the case if light's energy accumulated over
time from a continuous wave, Albert Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not a
wave propagating through space, but a swarm of discrete energy packets, known
as photons.

Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals requires a few electron-volt (eV)

light quanta, corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. In extreme cases,
emissions are induced with photons approaching zero energy, like in systems with negative
electron affinity and the emission from excited states, or a few hundred keV photons for core
electrons in elements with a high atomic number.[1] Study of the photoelectric effect led to
important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced
the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality.[2] Other phenomena where light affects
the movement of electric charges include the photoconductive effect, the photovoltaic effect,
and the photo-electro chemical effect.

So photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from the surface of
a metal when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are called photoelectrons. It is
important to note that the emission of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons is dependent on the frequency of the light that is incident on the metal’s
surface. The process through which photoelectrons are ejected from the surface of the metal
due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission.

The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the metal tend to
absorb energy from the incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces that bind
them to the metallic nuclei. An illustration detailing the emission of photoelectrons as a result
of the photoelectric effect is provided below.
 Fig: Emission of Electrons

Emission Mechanism
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy, called photon energy,
which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, when an
electron within some material absorbs the energy of a photon and acquires more energy
than its binding energy, it is likely to be ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron
is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will
only increase the number of low-energy photons, this change in intensity will not create any
single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Moreover, the energy of the
emitted electrons will not depend on the intensity of the incoming light of a given frequency,
but only on the energy of the individual photons.

While free electrons can absorb any energy when irradiated as long as this is
followed by an immediate re-emission, like in the Compton effect, in quantum systems all of
the energy from one photon is absorbed—if the process is allowed by quantum mechanics—
or none at all. Part of the acquired energy is used to liberate the electron from its atomic
binding, and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as a free particle. Because
electrons in a material occupy many different quantum states with different binding energies,
and because they can sustain energy losses on their way out of the material, the emitted
electrons will have a range of kinetic energies. The electrons from the highest occupied
states will have the highest kinetic energy. In metals, those electrons will be emitted from
the Fermi level.

When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the
term internal photoemission is often used, and emission into a vacuum is distinguished
as external photoemission.

Experimental Observation of Photoelectric Emission

Even though photoemission can occur from any material, it is most readily observed
from metals and other conductors. This is because the process produces a charge
imbalance which, if not neutralized by current flow, results in the increasing potential barrier
until the emission completely ceases.

The energy barrier to photoemission is usually increased by nonconductive oxide

layers on metal surfaces, so most practical experiments and devices based on the
photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in evacuated tubes. Vacuum also helps
observing the electrons since it prevents gases from impeding their flow between the
electrodes.

As sunlight, due to atmosphere's absorption, does not provide much ultraviolet light,
the light rich in ultraviolet rays used to be obtained by burning magnesium or from an arc
lamp. At the present time, mercury-vapor lamps, noble-gas discharge UV lamps and radio-
frequency plasma sources,  ultraviolet lasers,  and synchrotron insertion device light sources
prevail.
 The gold leaf electroscope to demonstrate the photoelectric effect.

Schematic of the experiment to demonstrate the photoelectric effect. Filtered,

monochromatic light of a certain wavelength strikes the emitting electrode (E) inside a
vacuum tube. The collector electrode (C) is biased to a voltage VC that can be set to attract
the emitted electrons, when positive, or prevent any of them from reaching the collector
when negative.

The classical setup to observe the photoelectric effect includes a light source, a set of
filters to monochromatize the light, a vacuum tube transparent to ultraviolet light, an emitting
electrode (E) exposed to the light, and a collector (C) whose voltage VC can be externally
controlled.

A positive external voltage is used to direct the photo-emitted electrons onto the
collector. If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the
photoelectric current I increases with an increase in the positive voltage, as more and more
electrons are directed onto the electrode. When no additional photoelectrons can be
collected, the photoelectric current attains a saturation value. This current can only increase
with the increase of the intensity of light.

An increasing negative voltage prevents all but the highest-energy electrons from
reaching the collector. When no current is observed through the tube, the negative voltage
has reached the value that is high enough to slow down and stop the most energetic
photoelectrons of kinetic energy Kmax. This value of the retarding voltage is called
the stopping potential or cut off potential Vo.[11] Since the work done by the retarding potential
in stopping the electron of charge e is eVo, the following must hold eVo = Kmax.

The current-voltage curve is sigmoidal, but its exact shape depends on the
experimental geometry and the electrode material properties.

For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of

incident radiation below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called
the threshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam increases the
maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons, and the stopping voltage has to
increase. The number of emitted electrons may also change because the probability that
each photon results in an emitted electron is a function of photon energy.

An increase in the intensity of the same monochromatic light (so long as the intensity
is not too high), which is proportional to the number of photons impinging on the surface in a
given time, increases the rate at which electrons are ejected—the photoelectric current I—
but the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons and the stopping voltage remain the same. For a
given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected
is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The time lag between the
incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is very small, less than
10−9 second. Angular distribution of the photoelectrons is highly dependent
on polarization (the direction of the electric field) of the incident light, as well as the emitting
material's quantum properties such as atomic and molecular orbital symmetries and
the electronic band structure of crystalline solids. In materials without macroscopic order, the
distribution of electrons tends to peak in the direction of polarization of linearly polarized
light.[13] The experimental technique that can measure these distributions to infer the
material's properties is angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy.

History of the Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect was first introduced by Wilhelm Ludwig Franz Hallwachs in
the year 1887, and the experimental verification was done by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. They
observed that when a surface is exposed to electromagnetic radiation at a higher threshold
frequency, the radiation is absorbed, and the electrons are emitted. Today, we study the
photoelectric effect as a phenomenon that involves a material absorbing electromagnetic
radiation and releasing electrically charged particles.To be more precise, light incident on the
surface of a metal in the photoelectric effect causes electrons to be ejected. The electron
ejected due to the photoelectric effect is called a photoelectron and is denoted by e –. The
current produced as a result of the ejected electrons is called photoelectric current.

Explaining the Photoelectric Effect: The Concept of Photons

The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave. However, this
phenomenon can be explained by the particle nature of light, in which light can be visualised
as a stream of particles of electromagnetic energy. These ‘particles’ of light are
called photons. The energy held by a photon is related to the frequency of the light
via Planck’s equation.

E = h𝜈 = hc/λ
Where,
 E denotes the energy of the photon
 h is Planck’s constant
 𝜈 denotes the frequency of the light
 c is the speed of light (in a vacuum)
 λ is the wavelength of the light

Thus, it can be understood that different frequencies of light carry photons of varying
energies. For example, the frequency of blue light is greater than that of red light (the
wavelength of blue light is much shorter than the wavelength of red light). Therefore, the
energy held by a photon of blue light will be greater than the energy held by a photon of red
light.

Threshold Energy for the Photoelectric Effect

For the photoelectric effect to occur, the photons that are incident on the surface of the metal
must carry sufficient energy to overcome the attractive forces that bind the electrons to the
nuclei of the metals. The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from
the metal is called the threshold energy (denoted by the symbol Φ). For a photon to
possess energy equal to the threshold energy, its frequency must be equal to the threshold
frequency (which is the minimum frequency of light required for the photoelectric effect to
occur).

The threshold frequency is usually denoted by the symbol 𝜈th, and the associated
wavelength (called the threshold wavelength) is denoted by the symbol λ th. The relationship
between the threshold energy and the threshold frequency can be expressed as follows.

Φ = h𝜈th = hc/λth

Relationship between the Frequency of the Incident Photon and the Kinetic Energy of the
Emitted Photoelectron

Therefore, the relationship between the energy of the photon and the kinetic energy of the
emitted photoelectron can be written as follows:

Ephoton = Φ + Eelectron
⇒ h𝜈 = h𝜈th + ½mev2
Where,
 Ephoton denotes the energy of the incident photon, which is equal to h𝜈
 Φ denotes the threshold energy of the metal surface, which is equal to h𝜈th
 Eelectron denotes the kinetic energy of the photoelectron, which is equal to ½m ev2 (me =
Mass of electron = 9.1*10-31 kg)

If the energy of the photon is less than the threshold energy, there will be no
emission of photoelectrons (since the attractive forces between the nuclei and the electrons
cannot be overcome). Thus, the photoelectric effect will not occur if 𝜈 < 𝜈th. If the frequency
of the photon is exactly equal to the threshold frequency (𝜈 = 𝜈th), there will be an emission of
photoelectrons, but their kinetic energy will be equal to zero. An illustration detailing the
effect of the frequency of the incident light on the kinetic energy of the photoelectron is
provided below.

From the image, it can be observed that

 The photoelectric effect does not occur when the red light strikes the metallic surface
because the frequency of red light is lower than the threshold frequency of the metal.
 The photoelectric effect occurs when green light strikes the metallic surface, and
photoelectrons are emitted.
 The photoelectric effect also occurs when blue light strikes the metallic surface.
However, the kinetic energies of the emitted photoelectrons are much higher for blue
light than for green light. This is because blue light has a greater frequency than
green light.
 It is important to note that the threshold energy varies from metal to metal. This is
because the attractive forces that bind the electrons to the metal are different for different
metals. It can also be noted that the photoelectric effect can also take place in non-metals,
but the threshold frequencies of non-metallic substances are usually very high.

Einstein’s Contributions towards the Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect is the process that involves the ejection or release of
electrons from the surface of materials (generally a metal) when light falls on them. The
photoelectric effect is an important concept that enables us to clearly understand
the quantum nature of light and electrons.

After continuous research in this field, the explanation for the photoelectric effect was
successfully explained by Albert Einstein. He concluded that this effect occurred as a result
of light energy being carried in discrete quantised packets. For this excellent work, he was
honoured with the Nobel Prize in 1921.

According to Einstein, each photon of energy E is

E = hν
Where E = Energy of the photon in joule
h = Plank’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 J.s)
ν = Frequency of photon in Hz

Properties of the Photon

 For a photon, all the quantum numbers are zero.

 A photon does not have any mass or charge, and they are not reflected in a magnetic
and electric field.
 The photon moves at the speed of light in empty space.
 During the interaction of matter with radiation, radiation behaves as it is made up of
small particles called photons.
 Photons are virtual particles. The photon energy is directly proportional to its
frequency and inversely proportional to its wavelength.
 The momentum and energy of the photons are related, as given below

E = p.c where
p = Magnitude of the momentum
c = Speed of light

Definition of the Photoelectric Effect

The phenomenon of metals releasing electrons when they are exposed to light of the 
appropriate frequency is called the photoelectric effect, and the electrons emitted during the
process are called photoelectrons.

Principle of the Photoelectric Effect

The law of conservation of energy forms the basis for the photoelectric effect.

Minimum Condition for Photoelectric Effect

Threshold Frequency (γth)

It is the minimum frequency of the incident light or radiation that will produce a photoelectric
effect, i.e., the ejection of photoelectrons from a metal surface is known as the threshold
frequency for the metal. It is constant for a specific metal but may be different for different
metals.

If γ = Frequency of the incident photon and γth= Threshold frequency, then,

 If γ < γTh, there will be no ejection of photoelectron and, therefore, no photoelectric
effect.
 If γ = γTh, photoelectrons are just ejected from the metal surface; in this case, the
kinetic energy of the electron is zero.
 If γ > γTh, then photoelectrons will come out of the surface, along with kinetic energy.

Threshold Wavelength (λth)

During the emission of electrons, a metal surface corresponding to the greatest wavelength

to incident light is known as threshold wavelength.

λth = c/γth

For wavelengths above this threshold, there will be no photoelectron emission. For λ =
wavelength of the incident photon, then

 If λ < λTh, then the photoelectric effect will take place, and ejected electron will
possess kinetic energy.
 If λ = λTh, then just the photoelectric effect will take place, and the kinetic energy of
ejected photoelectron will be zero.
 If λ > λTh, there will be no photoelectric effect.

Work Function or Threshold Energy (Φ)

The minimal energy of thermodynamic work that is needed to remove an electron from a

conductor to a point in the vacuum immediately outside the surface of the conductor is
known as work function/threshold energy.

Φ = hγth = hc/λth

The work function is the characteristic of a given metal. If E = energy of an incident photon,
then

1. If E < Φ, no photoelectric effect will take place.

2. If E = Φ, just a photoelectric effect will take place, but the kinetic energy of ejected
photoelectron will be zero
3. If E > photoelectron will be zero
4. If E > Φ, the photoelectric effect will take place along with the possession of the
kinetic energy by the ejected electron.

Photoelectric Effect Formula

According to Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect,

The energy of photon = Energy needed to remove an electron + Kinetic energy of the
emitted electron
i.e., hν = W + E
Where,
 h is Planck’s constant
 ν is the frequency of the incident photon
  W is a work function
 E is the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons: 1/2 mv²

Laws Governing the Photoelectric Effect

1. For a light of any given frequency,; (γ > γ  Th), the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of light.
2. For any given material, there is a certain minimum (energy) frequency, called
threshold frequency, below which the emission of photoelectrons stops completely,
no matter how high the intensity of incident light is.
3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is found to increase with the
increase in the frequency of incident light, provided the frequency (γ > γ  Th) exceeds
the threshold limit. The maximum kinetic energy is independent of the intensity of
light.
4. The photo-emission is an instantaneous process.

Experimental Study of the Photoelectric Effect

Photoelectric Effect: Experimental Setup

 Diagram of the maximum kinetic energy as a function of the frequency of light on zinc.

The given experiment is used to study the photoelectric effect experimentally. In an

evacuated glass tube, two zinc plates, C and D, are enclosed. Plates C acts as an anode,
and D acts as a photosensitive plate.
Two plates are connected to battery B and ammeter A. If the radiation is incident on plate D
through a quartz window, W electrons are ejected out of the plate, and current flows in the
circuit. This is known as photocurrent. Plate C can be maintained at desired potential (+ve or
– ve) with respect to plate D.

Characteristics of the Photoelectric Effect

 The threshold frequency varies with the material, it is different for different materials.
 The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the light intensity.
 The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the light frequency.
 The stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency, and the process is
instantaneous.

Factors Affecting the Photoelectric Effect

With the help of this apparatus, we will now study the dependence of the photoelectric effect
on the following factors:
1. The intensity of incident radiation.
2. A potential difference between the metal plate and collector.
3. Frequency of incident radiation.

Effects of Intensity of Incident Radiation on Photoelectric Effect

The potential difference between the metal plate, collector and frequency of incident
light is kept constant, and the intensity of light is varied.

The electrode C, i.e., the collecting electrode, is made positive with respect to D (metal
plate). For a fixed value of frequency and the potential between the metal plate and collector,
the photoelectric current is noted in accordance with the intensity of incident radiation.
It shows that photoelectric current and intensity of incident radiation both are proportional to
each other. The photoelectric current gives an account of the number of photoelectrons
ejected per sec.

Effects of Potential Difference between the Metal Plate and the Collector on the
Photoelectric Effect

The frequency of incident light and intensity is kept constant, and the potential difference
between the plates is varied.

Keeping the intensity and frequency of light constant, the positive potential of C is increased
gradually. Photoelectric current increases when there is a positive increase in the potential
between the metal plate and the collector up to a characteristic value.

There is no change in photoelectric current when the potential is increased higher than the
characteristic value for any increase in the accelerating voltage. This maximum value of the
current is called saturation current.

Effect of Frequency on Photoelectric Effect

The intensity of light is kept constant, and the frequency of light is varied.

For a fixed intensity of incident light, variation in the frequency of incident light produces a
linear variation of the cut-off potential/stopping potential of the metal. It is shown that the cut-
off potential (Vc) is linearly proportional to the frequency of incident light.
The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases directly proportionally to the frequency of
incident light to completely stop the photoelectrons. We should reverse and increase the
potential between the metal plate and collector in (negative value) so the emitted
photoelectron can’t reach the collector.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

According to Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect, when a photon collides

inelastically with electrons, the photon is absorbed completely or partially by the electrons.
So if an electron in a metal absorbs a photon of energy, it uses the energy in the following
ways.
Some energy Φ0 is used in making the surface electron free from the metal. It is known as
the work function of the material. Rest energy will appear as kinetic energy (K) of the emitted
photoelectrons.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation Explains the Following Concepts

 The frequency of the incident light is directly proportional to the kinetic energy of the
electrons, and the wavelengths of incident light are inversely proportional to the
kinetic energy of the electrons.
 If γ = γth or λ =λth then vmax = 0
 γ < γth or λ > λth: There will be no emission of photoelectrons.
 The intensity of the radiation or incident light refers to the number of photons in the
light beam. More intensity means more photons and vice-versa. Intensity has nothing
to do with the energy of the photon. Therefore, the intensity of the radiation is
increased, and the rate of emission increases, but there will be no change in the
kinetic energy of electrons. With an increasing number of emitted electrons, the value
of the photoelectric current increases.

Different Graphs of the Photoelectric Equation

 Photoelectric current vs Retarding potential for different voltages
 Photoelectric current vs Retarding potential for different intensities
 Electron current vs Light Intensity
 Stopping potential vs Frequency
 Electron current vs Light frequency
 Electron kinetic energy vs Light frequency
Applications of the Photoelectric Effect

 Used to generate electricity in solar panels. These panels contain metal

combinations that allow electricity generation from a wide range of wavelengths.
 Motion and Position Sensors: In this case, a photoelectric material is placed in
front of a UV or IR LED. When an object is placed in between the Light-emitting
diode (LED) and sensor, light is cut off, and the electronic circuit registers a change
in potential difference
 Lighting sensors, such as the ones used in smartphones, enable automatic
adjustment of screen brightness according to the lighting. This is because the
amount of current generated via the photoelectric effect is dependent on the intensity
of light hitting the sensor.
 Digital cameras can detect and record light because they have photoelectric sensors
that respond to different colours of light.
 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): This technique uses X-rays to irradiate
a surface and measure the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons. Important
aspects of the chemistry of a surface can be obtained, such as elemental
composition, chemical composition, the empirical formula of compounds and
chemical state.
 Photoelectric cells are used in burglar alarms.
 Used in photomultipliers to detect low levels of light.
 Used in video camera tubes in the early days of television.
 Night vision devices are based on this effect.
 The photoelectric effect also contributes to the study of certain nuclear processes. It
takes part in the chemical analysis of materials since emitted electrons tend to carry
specific energy that is characteristic of the atomic source

Problems on the Photoelectric Effect

1. In a photoelectric effect experiment, the threshold wavelength of incident light is

260 nm and E (in eV) = 1237/λ (nm). Find the maximum kinetic energy of emitted
electrons.
Solution:

Kmax  = hc/λ – hc/λ0 = hc × [(λ0 – λ)/λλ0]

⇒ Kmax  = (1237) × [(380 – 260)/380×260] = 1.5 eV

Therefore, the maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons in the photoelectric effect is 1.5
eV.

2. In a photoelectric experiment, the wavelength of the light incident on metal is

changed from 300 nm to 400 nm and (hc/e = 1240 nm-V). Find the decrease in the
stopping potential.
Solution:

hc/λ1  = ϕ + eV1 . . . . (i)

hc/λ2   = ϕ + eV2 . . . . (ii)
Equation (i) – (ii)

hc(1/λ1 – 1/λ2) = e × (V1 – V2)

⇒V1 – V2 = (hc/e) × [(λ2 – λ1)/(λ1 λ2)]

= (1240 nm V) × 100nm/(300nm × 400nm)

=12.4/12 ≈ 1V

Therefore, the decrease in the stopping potential during the photoelectric experiment is 1V.

3. When ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 230 nm shines on a particular metal

plate, electrons are emitted from plate 1, crossing the gap to plate 2 and causing a
current to flow through the wire connecting the two plates. The battery voltage is
gradually increased until the current in the ammeter drops to zero, at which point the
battery voltage is 1.30 V. 

a) What is the energy of the photons in the beam of light in eV?

b) What is the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons in eV?
Solution:
Assuming that the wavelength corresponds to the wavelength in the vacuum.

f = 1.25 × 1015 Hz
The energy of photon E = hf
E = (4.136 × 10-15)( 1.25 × 1015)   
Note: Planck’s constant in eV s = 4.136 × 10-15 eV s
E = 5.17 eV.
b) The maximum kinetic energy related to the emitted electron is stopping potential. In this
case, the stopping potential is 1.30V. So the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons is
1.30V.
Important Points to Remember

 If we consider the light with any given frequency, the photoelectric current is
generally directly proportional to the intensity of light. However, the frequency should
be above the threshold frequency in such a case.
 Below threshold frequency, the emission of photoelectrons completely stops despite
the high intensity of incident light.
 A photoelectron’s maximum kinetic energy increases with an increase in the
frequency of incident light. In this case, the frequency should exceed the threshold
limit. Maximum kinetic energy is not affected by the intensity of light.
 Stopping potential is the negative potential of the opposite electrode when the photo-
electric current falls to zero.
 The threshold frequency is described as the frequency when the photoelectric current
stops below a particular frequency of incident light.
 The photoelectric effect establishes the quantum nature of radiation. This has been
taken into account to be proof in favour of the particle nature of light.

A graphical summary of the properties of the photoelectric effect, as predicted by Einstein’s

1905 equation for the effect (Eqn. 4) and verified experimentally (in a qualitative way) by
Lenard between 1900 and 1902
Uses and effects

Photomultipliers

Photomultiplier

These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum tubes with a coated photocathode inside the

envelope. The photo cathode contains combinations of materials such as cesium, rubidium,
and antimony specially selected to provide a low work function, so when illuminated even by
very low levels of light, the photocathode readily releases electrons. By means of a series of
electrodes (dynodes) at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are accelerated and
substantially increased in number through secondary emission to provide a readily
detectable output current. Photomultipliers are still commonly used wherever low levels of
light must be detected.

Image sensors

Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric effect, for
example, Philo Farnsworth's "Image dissector" used a screen charged by the photoelectric
effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic signal.

Photoelectron Spectroscopy

Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) experiment. Helium discharge lamp

shines ultraviolet light onto the sample in ultra-high vacuum. Hemispherical electron analyzer
measures the distribution of ejected electrons with respect to energy and momentum.

Because the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is exactly the energy of the
incident photon minus the energy of the electron's binding within an atom, molecule or solid,
the binding energy can be determined by shining a monochromatic X-ray or UV light of a
known energy and measuring the kinetic energies of the photoelectrons.[17] The distribution
of electron energies is valuable for studying quantum properties of these systems. It can also
be used to determine the elemental composition of the samples. For solids, the kinetic
energy and emission angle distribution of the photoelectrons is measured for the complete
determination of the electronic band structure in terms of the allowed binding energies and
momenta of the electrons. Modern instruments for angle-resolved photoemission
spectroscopy are capable of measuring these quantities with a precision better than 1 meV
and 0.1°.

Photoelectron spectroscopy measurements are usually performed in a high-vacuum

environment, because the electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were
present. However, some companies are now selling products that allow photoemission in air.
The light source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or a synchrotron radiation source.

The concentric hemispherical analyzer is a typical electron energy analyzer. It uses an

electric field between two hemispheres to change (disperse) the trajectories of incident
electrons depending on their kinetic energies.

Night vision devices

Photons hitting a thin film of alkali metal or semiconductor material such as gallium

arsenide in an image intensifier tube cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to the
photoelectric effect. These are accelerated by an electrostatic field where they strike
a phosphor coated screen, converting the electrons back into photons. Intensification of the
signal is achieved either through acceleration of the electrons or by increasing the number of
electrons through secondary emissions, such as with a micro-channel plate. Sometimes a
combination of both methods is used. Additional kinetic energy is required to move an
electron out of the conduction band and into the vacuum level. This is known as the electron
affinity of the photocathode and is another barrier to photoemission other than the forbidden
band, explained by the band gap model. Some materials such as gallium arsenide have an
effective electron affinity that is below the level of the conduction band. In these materials,
electrons that move to the conduction band all have sufficient energy to be emitted from the
material, so the film that absorbs photons can be quite thick. These materials are known as
negative electron affinity materials.

Spacecraft

The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a positive

charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft are in shadow which
will result in the spacecraft developing a negative charge from nearby plasmas. The
imbalance can discharge through delicate electrical components. The static charge created
by the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, because a higher charged object doesn't give up its
electrons as easily as a lower charged object does.

Moon dust

Light from the Sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become positively charged from the
photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the surface of
the Moon by electrostatic levitation.[57][58] This manifests itself almost like an "atmosphere of
dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features, and visible as a dim glow after
the sun has set. This was first photographed by the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s,
[59]
 and most recently the Chang'e 3 rover observed dust deposition on lunar rocks as high as
about 28 cm.[60] It is thought that the smallest particles are repelled kilometers from the
surface and that the particles move in "fountains" as they charge and discharge.

Competing processes and photoemission cross section

When photon energies are as high as the electron rest energy of 511 keV, yet another
process, the Compton scattering, may take place. Above twice this energy,
at 1.022 MeV pair production is also more likely. Compton scattering and pair production are
examples of two other competing mechanisms.
Common Experimental Apparatus

This project began with a literature review by the student of both the history and theory of the
photoelectric effect, and of the commercially and non-commercially available versions of the
experimental apparatus. While many colleges and universities have a commercial version of
the apparatus in use for their Modern Physics, Advanced Lab or Optics Lab, the search also
revealed a number of creative home-assembled (in university labs) forms of the apparatus.
We found this search in itself to be of great pedagogical value that allowed us to explore,
analyze, compare and contrast the claimed performance, complexity of the apparatus, cost,
accessibility and flexibility vis-à-vis our intended mode of use. As stated earlier, a
commercial experimental apparatus for the study of the photoelectric effect is available from
a number of vendors. Figure 2 shows the apparatus available from market for around
$3,700.

The apparatus consists of a self-enclosed lowpressure mercury light source and the
associated power supply, a self-enclosed proprietary vacuum-tube photocell unit outfitted
with a filter wheel concentric with an aperture wheel, a power supply that provides the
voltage (variable from positive to negative) to be applied between the photocathode and the
anode of the photocell, and a current amplifier and meter for the measurement of the very
small photocurrent generated in the photocell under the effect of the incident light.

The low-pressure mercury lamp emits discrete, sharp spectral lines of 365, 405, 436, 546,
and 577 nm respectively. Each one of them can be selected, in turns, as the excitation
wavelength to illuminate the photocathode by rotating the filter wheel and placing the
appropriate narrow band-pass filter in front of the photocell. In addition, the incident light
intensity can be set to one of three possible levels by selecting an appropriate aperture in
front of the band-pass filters.

The current amplifier can measure photocurrents in the range of 10-8 to 10-13 A (manually
selectable range). The proprietary, nickelanode-ring vacuum photocell has a stated dark
current of 20 × 10 -13 A.

Photoelectric effect commercial experimental apparatus from PASCO

 Photoelectric effect experimental apparatus assembled through this project

Circuit diagram of the photoelectric effect apparatus

The Horiba H10-61 compact monochromator used in the redesigned photoelectric effect
apparatus (a), the light path through the monochromator (b), and the monochromator
outfitted with the phototube mounted on the exit slit (c)

The side-window RCA/GE/Cetron 1P39 (929) vacuum phototube (a), its so-called S4
spectral response curve (b), and the front-end-window R-414 Hamamatsu phototube (c)
Preliminary Results
With the student in final stages of collecting and analyzing a first set of data with this new
apparatus, we present here some preliminary results of the actual measurements. While
important for the outcome of this project, and even more so for the photoelectric effect
experiment to be performed in the lab with a full class, the quality of the graphs produced by
the student and the value for Plank’s constant extracted from these measurements becomes
only one of a number of the measures of the student learning through this project. It is
apparent that a more precise method of extracting the actual stopping voltage than the
simple “voltage at zero current” is needed to improve on the value of h.

The spectra of a high-pressure mercury lamp and a low-pressure mercury lamp investigated
as potential light sources for the redesigned photoelectric effect apparatus (to be used with a
monochromator wavelength selector)

Stopping voltage as a function of inverse wavelength for the 1P39 photoelectric tube. The
resulting value for Planck’s constant is 5.34 × 10-34 J * S, which is 18% off from accepted
value. The work function of the cathode is 1.166 eV.
Conclusions and Future Work

So, we found the conclusion that when light shines on a metal, electrons can be ejected from
the surface of the metal in a phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. This process is
also often referred to as photoemission, and the electrons that are ejected from the metal
are called photoelectrons. In terms of their behavior and their properties, photoelectrons are
no different from other electrons. The prefix, photo-, simply tells us that the electrons have
been ejected from a metal surface by incident light.

We have presented, in its context, an undergraduate student project of designing and

assembling an experimental apparatus for the study of the photoelectric effect. While the
experiment itself is part of a Modern Physics course, the activities involved in the design and
assembly of the apparatus were very much of an optics design, assembly and testing in
nature. Such activities provided the student with both theoretical knowledge and practical
skills of optics, optoelectronics and optical spectroscopy. With the modular design of the
apparatus simple and robust enough, we plan to deploy it in a redesigned photoelectric
effect lab activity for physics and engineering majors. On the theoretical part, the redesigned
activity will emphasize both the historic context of the discovery of the effect and the
watershed significance of its theoretical explanation by Einstein in the debate regarding the
nature of light. On the practical activity side, we intend to use the modular design of the
apparatus to expose the students to elements of optics design (e.g. the internal design of the
monochromator and its advantages), optical spectroscopy (discreet light sources, broadband
light sources, filters) and optoelectronics (vacuum phototubes as light detectors, spectral
response of a detector, aging of the detector, etc.).

***