GAYATRI VIDYA PARISHAD COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (A)

Madhurawada,Visakhapatnam-530048.

Department of Physics
Applied Physics
Lecture-01

By
12/04/2023 Dr. Ch. Rajesh 1
 UNIT-IV
SEMICONDUCTORS
Syllabus
Classification of solids based on energy bands –
Intrinsic semiconductors –Electrical conductivity-
derivation of density of charge carriers (electron) -
Fermi energy - extrinsic semiconductors - N-type &
P-type - Density of charge carriers (Qualitative)-
Dependence of Fermi energy on temperature and
carrier concentration -Hall effect- Hall coefficient -
Applications of Hall effect - Applications of
Semiconductor.
2
 BOOKS
TEXT BOOK
1. M. N. Avadhanulu, P. G. Khirsagar, and T. V. S.
Arun Murthy, A textbook of Engineering Physics,
Revised edition (11e), S. Chand and Company Ltd.,
2019.

REFERENCE BOOK
2. C. Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, Wiley
Publications, 2011.

LINK
https://www.slideshare.net/rahulkushwaha06/semicon
ductor-devices-class-12-part1 3
Success of Classical Free Electron Theory

1. Explains the concept of resistance in metals

2. Verifies Ohm’s law
3. High electrical and thermal conductivity of
metals
4. Wiedemann – Franz law
5. Explains optical properties of metals

4
 Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron Theory

 Classical theory failed to explain:

 Photoelectric effect, Compton effect and black body
radiation, etc.
 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors and
insulators.
 Specific heat capacity of solids
 The concept of ferromagnetism
 Paramagnetic susceptibility 5
 Quantum Free Electron Theory
 Postulates:
 Sommerfield retained the concept of free electrons
 Electrons obeying laws of quantum mechanics
 Electron trapped in a potential well
 Distribution functions to explain Energy levels
 Fermi-Dirac statistics

6
7
 Atomic structure
Nucleus is surrounded by orbiting electrons

Carbon C -6
Silicon Si -14

8
 Energy levels
Only certain orbit sizes are permitted for
electrons to move round the nucleus

2 nd energy level
1 st energy level

For convenience in
drawing the orbits
are shone as horizontal
lines and are known as
Energy levels
9
Energy bands
Atoms are regularly arranged in a crystalline solid.
No two electrons in a crystal have the same charge
pattern . As such all electrons traveling in the first orbit
have slightly different energy levels and form into a band

conduction band

valence band

1st Band

10
 Formation of Energy bands in solids.

 The band corresponding to the outermost orbit is called

conduction band

 The next inner band is known as valence band.

 The gap between two allowed bands is known as forbidden

energy gap or band energy.

11
STRUCTURE OF ENERGY BAND

CONDUCTION BAND

FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP

VALENCE BAND

12
Classification of Solids Based on
Band Gap (Quantum Mechanically)

Metals/Conductors

Semiconductors

Insulators

13
Conductor

 Conduction band is partially filled

 Valence Band is completely filled
 Overlap of valance band and conduction band
 Availability of a large number of electrons for
conduction
14
Insulators

 Conduction band empty

 Valence band filled
 Large forbidden energy
gap > 3ev
 No excitation of electron
from valance to conduction
Band.
 No free electrons in conduction band
 No conductivity
15
Semiconductors

 Conduction band empty

or partially filled
 Valence band filled
 Small forbidden energy
gap < 3ev
 Excitation of electron
from valance to conduction
band at room temperature also.
 Resistivity of semiconductors is lower than that of
insulators but higher than that of conductors. 16
Fermi Level
Fermi-Dirac function
1
 F (E)  EE EF is the fermi energy and
F
F(E) is kT
1 e
called fermi function.
 At 0 0K, if E< EF , F(E) = 1
 Fermi level can be defined as the level of
maximum energy of the filled state at 0 0K
 If T>0 0K and If E = EF then F(E) = ½
 fermi level is defined as the energy level at which
the probability of electron occupation is ½ at any 17
0
Fermi Energy

 Maximum energy of filled state at 0 0K

 Energy of that state where the probability of
electron occupation is ½ at any other temperature
above 0 0K

18
SEMICONDUCTORS
 electrical conductivity lies between conductor and
insulator
 Example- germanium and silicon (Indirect band gap)
 GaAs (gallium arsenide) and InSb (indium antimonite),
etc. (Direct band Gap)
Properties:
 Semiconductors are tetravalent atoms.
 In general conductivity increases with increase in
temperature.
 Conductivity is due to holes and electrons.
 Forbidden energy gap is less than insulators.
 In a solid the bond between the atoms is covalent bond.
19
20
Types of semiconductors:
 Intrinsic semiconductors,
 Extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductors:
 Semiconductor in purest form
 Example- Pure germanium & silicon crystals
Extrinsic semiconductors:
 Doped with suitable doping impurity
 Example: doped germanium and silicon
Types of Extrinsic semiconductor
1. N-type Semiconductors
2. P-type Semiconductors 21
22
23
EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

24
 N-type material

When extra valence electrons are

introduced
 By including impurities or dopants into
+4 +4 +4
the silicon
+4 +5 +4 The dopants used are Group V elements
Arsenic, Antimony and Phosphorus
+4 +4 +4
Extra electron that will be present when
a Group V dopant is introduced
Extra electron is very mobile.

25
 The Phosphorus atom
Phosphorus is number
15 in the periodic
table

It has 15 protons and 15

electrons – 5 of these
electrons are in its outer
shell
26
27
Bond and Band structure

28
 This crystal has been doped with a pentavalent impurity

The free electrons in n type silicon support the flow of current

29
 P-type material

P-type material is produced when the

dopant that is introduced is from Group III.
+4 +4 +4 Group III elements have only 3 valence
electrons
+4 +3 +4
This creates a hole (h+)
 Aluminum, Boron, and Gallium.
+4 +4 +4
Hole is quite mobile in the same way the
extra electron is mobile in a n-type material.

30
 The Boron atom
Boron is number 5 in the
periodic table

It has 5 protons and 5

electrons – 3 of these
electrons are in its outer
shell
31
Bond and Band Structure

32
Extrinsic conduction – p-type silicon

33
This crystal has been doped with a trivalent impurity

The holes in p type silicon contribute to the current

Note that the hole current direction is opposite to electron current
so the electrical current is in the same direction 34
35
36
 Recap
 Formation of energy band gap

 Properties of Semiconductors

 Fermi energy and Fermi Level

 Types of Semiconductors

 Here in this class we will derive the expression

For density of charge carriers in intrinsic
semiconductors
37
 Calculation of density of electrons

Where dn represents number of electrons available

between the energy level E and E+dE in the conduction
band
Where Z(E)dE represents density of energy states
available between the energy level E and E+dE and F(E)
is probability of electron occupancy
38
 Density of states within the energy level E and E+dE
is given by

Since the E starts at the bottom of the conduction band E c

39
Probability of an electron occupying an energy state E is
given by

40
Thus substituting the value of Z(E) and F(E) in the first
equation

To solve this equation

41
42
43
Variation of Intrinsic carrier concentration with
temperature

 The intrinsic concentration is independent of the Fermi

level
 The intrinsic concentration depends exponentially on
the band gap value.
 The intrinsic concentration also strongly depends on
the temperature
 The factor 2 in the exponent indicates that two charge
carriers are created when one covalent bond is broken.
44
Fermi Level

45
46
47
Fermi Level and its variation with Temperature in
an Intrinsic semiconductor

 Fermi level is located half way between the

valence and conduction band if
 Fermi level is just above the middle if
 Fermi level is just below the middle if
 With an increase in temperature the Fermi level
gets displaced up word slightly towards the
conduction band if and down word
towards the valence band if
48
  Shift of fermi level on account of
is insignificant.
 Fermi level on an intrinsic semiconductor may
be considered as independent of temperature
and at middle of the band gap.

Fermi level in Intrinsic semiconductor Variation of Fermi level with temperature

49
Electrical Conductivity in Semiconductors

50
If the applied electric field is small then semiconductors
obeys Ohm`s law

51
52
Electrical Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor

53
Conductivity increases with increase in
temperature
54
 Recap
 Derived the expression for carrier concentration in
intrinsic semiconductor

 The intrinsic concentration

is independent of the Fermi level
depends exponentially on the band gap value.
strongly depends on the temperature
factor 2 in the exponent indicates that two
charge carriers
55
55
 Recap
 Derived the expression for electrical conductivity
in intrinsic semiconductor

Electron mobility is higher than hole mobility

The resistivity/conductivity depends not only

on the electron and hole densities but also on
their mobilities

The mobility depends relatively weakly on

temperature
56
Carrier concentration in N type semiconductor:

Density of electron in N-type semiconductor at

room temperature is

Where Nd is the density of donor atom and Ed is the

donor energy level
 Density of electron is directly proportional to the
square root of the donor concentration

57
Variation of fermi level with concentration
(a) N-type semiconductor

Light doped Medium doped Heavy doped

58
For light doping
 Fermi level lies in between donor level (ED)and
bottom of conduction band (EC).
 Donor level is discrete and band gap is more
For medium doping
 donor level is a band and fermi level is pushed
towards conduction band and band gap decreases.
For heavy doping
 donor level is much broadened and overlap with
conduction band.
 Fermi level moves to conduction band with very
less band gap. 59
(b) P-type semiconductor

60
Light doped Medium doped Heavy doped
For light doping
 fermi level (EF)lies in between acceptor level
(EA)and top of valence band (EV).
 Donor level is discrete and band gap is more
For medium doping
 Accepter level is a band and fermi level is pushed
towards valence band and band gap decreases.
For heavy doping
 Acceptor level is much broadened and overlap
with valence band.
 Fermi level moves to valence band and band gap
is very less. 61
Variation of fermi level with temperature
(a) N-type semiconductor
 For T = 0K

 For T = Td
EFn = ED
Td- Temperature of
complete depletion
 at T >=Ti
EFn = EFi =

Ti – Temperature at which extrinsic semiconductor

losses its property and become intrinsic semiconductor.62
(b) P-type semiconductor
 For T = 0K

 For T = Ts
EFp = EA
Ts- Saturation
Temperature
 at T >=Ti
EFp = EFi =

Ts – Temperature at which extrinsic semiconductor

losses its property and become intrinsic
semiconductor.
63
Hall Effect
The production of a potential difference across an
electrical conductor when a magnetic field is
applied in a direction perpendicular to that of the
flow of current.

64
ABCDEFGH- P-type semiconductor slab.

BC = width ‘w’, (distance between the surface where

Hall voltage is developed)

DC = thickness ‘t’ (distance between the end along the

direction of current), Area of ABCD= A = wt

Current =I = peAVd , Where Vd is the drift velocity

Current density= -------(1)

65
 Lorentz or magnetic force FL = eVdB

 Electric force =FE = eEH , EH = Hall Field

 At equilibrium, FE =FL. => eEH = eVdB

 If VH is the Hall voltage,

 From equation (1)

 Hence, Hall Voltage= 66

 Hall coefficient = ,

 Expression for Hall coefficient

67
 RH is negative for n-type semiconductor (because
‘e’ is negative)

 RH is positive in the case of p-type semiconductor

(because ‘e’ is positive)

 Unit of RH is m3/C or m3/A-s.

68
 Applications of Hall Effect:
 Determination of Carrier Concentration
1
p
RH e
 Determine the Mobility (Hall Mobility)
μh = σh R H
 Determination Magnetic Flux Density

 Determination of drift velocity

69
Semiconductor materials
•1. Cadmium sulphide ------- Light meters

•2. Lead sulphide -------Infrared detectors

Lead telluride ------ ,,

70
•3.Galium indium arsenide ---- Transistors
Indium phosphide ---- Lasers

•4.Galium arsenide phosphide ---- LED

71
 •5.Gallium arsenide
Solar cells

6.Semiconductors
can be used for
making IC s

72