Advanced Optoelectronics

Lecture 2: Light Propagation Theory

Professor Z Ghassemlooy
Northumbria Communications Laboratory
School of Informatics, Engineering and
Technology
The University of Northumbria
U.K.
http://soe.northumbria.ac.uk/ocr
Edited by: Dr. Hassan Al-Musawi
Department of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Faculty of Engineering,
University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq.
Email: hasank.baqir@uokufa.edu.iq

2022

1
Contents

 Wave Nature of Light

 Particle Nature of Light
 Electromagnetic Wave
 Reflection, Refraction, and Total Internal Reflection
 Ray Properties in Fibre
 Types of Fibre
 Fibre Characteristics
 Attenuation
 Dispersion
 Bandwidth Distance Product
 Summary

2
 Nature of Light
Ancient Greek

• Pythagoras (580-500 BC) believed that the light

consisted of invisible particles.

• Aristotle (384-332 BC) suggested that the light

was some kind of wave motion.

3
Nature of Light
• Newton (1680) believed in the particle theory of light. In
reflection and refraction, light behaved as a particle. He
explained the straight-line casting of sharp shadows of objects
placed in a light beam. But he could not explain the textures of
shadows
• Young (1800) – Showed that light interfered
with itself. Wave theory: Explains the
interference where the light intensity can be
enhanced in some places and diminished in
other places behind a screen with a slit or
several slits. The wave theory is also able to
account for the fact that the edges of a shadow
are not quite sharp.
G Ekspong, Stockholm
This theory describes: Propagation, reflection, University, Sweden, 1999.
refraction and attenuation
4
Nature of Light - contd.
James Clerk Maxwell (1850) -
His mathematical theory of electromagnetism led to the view that
light is of electromagnetic nature, propagating as a wave from the
source to the receiver.

Heinrich Hertz (1887)

Discovered experimentally the existence of electromagnetic waves at
radio-frequencies.
Wave theory does not describe the absorption of light by a
photosensitive materials

1900-20 Max Planck, Neils Bohr and Albert Einstein

Invoked the idea of light being emitted in tiny pulses of energy
5
 Particle Nature of Light
Light behaviour can be explained in terms of the amount of energy
imparted in an interaction with some other medium. In this case, a
beam of light is composed of a stream of small lumps or QUANTA of
energy, known as PHOTONS. Each photon carries with it a precisely
defined amount of energy defined as:
W p = h*f Joules (J)
where; h = Plank's constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s, f = Frequency Hz
The convenient unit of energy is electron volt (eV), which is the kinetic energy
acquired by an electron when accelerated to 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J.

• Even although a photon can be thought of as a particle of energy it still has a

fundamental wavelength, which is equivalent to that of the propagating wave as
described by the wave model.
• This model of light is useful when the light source contains only a few photons.
6
Particle Nature of Light - contd.

Planck (1900) - Developed a model that explained light as a

quantization of energy.

Einstein (1905) – Used Plank’s idea to showed that in the

photoelectric effect (light causing electrons to be emitted from
a metal surface) light must act as a particle.

Planck (1900) - Developed a model that explained light as a

quantization of energy.
Therefore, light must be regarded as having a dual nature;
• in some cases light acts as a wave
• in others it acts like a particle.

7
Electromagnetic Spectrum

8
9
Electromagnetic Radiation
• Carries energy through space (includes visible light, dental x-rays,
radio waves, heat radiation from a fireplace)
• The wave is composed of a combination of mutually perpendicular
electric and magnetic fields the direction of propagation of the wave
is at right angles to both field directions, this is known as an
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
EM wave move through a vacuum at 3.0 x 108 m/s ("speed of light")

E = E (r , φ)e j ( ωt −βz )
H = H (r , φ)e j ( ωt −βz )
Speed of light in a vacuum c = f ×λ
β - Propagation constant = ω/vp

10
 The Wave Equation
Solutions to Maxwell’s equations:
phase fronts

λ
λ

− jk ⋅r e − jk ⋅R
Plane wave: E∝e Spherical wave: E∝
Wave number in vacuum
R

2π k= n ⋅ k0 k = ω εµ 0 = ε r ⋅ ω ε 0 µ 0 = ε r ⋅ k0
k=
λ λ = λ0 / n n = εr
Note: k = β Wavefronts are surfaces connecting points with the same phase of
a monochromatic wave, having a common origin travel through
a homogeneous medium. 11
 One Dimensional EM Wave
• For most purposes, a travelling light wave can be presented as a
one-dimensional, scalar wave provided it has a direction of
propagation.
• Such a wave is usually described in terms of the electric field E .
Wavelength λ
Eo A plane wave propagating
in the direction of z is:
z
E ( z , t ) = Eo sin(ωt − βz )
Phase
2π ω
The propagation constant β= =
λ vp
Phase velocity v p = c / n n = Propagation medium refractive index

12
Transverse Light Waves

 Light is a transverse wave because its components

vibrate perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
 A transverse wave is a wave that oscillates perpendicular to its
direction of propagation.
 A light wave is an electromagnetic wave.
 It has an electric and a magnetic component.

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Polarization
Light is a transverse, electromagnetic wave, where the transverse nature of it
can be demonstrated through polarization.

Unpolarized light source: The electric field is vibrating in many directions; all
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Polarized light source: The vibration of the electric field is mostly in one
direction. Any direction is possible as long as it's perpendicular to the
propagation.

Horizontal Vertical Diognal

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Group Velocity

• A pure single frequency EM wave propagate through a wave guide

at a
Phase velocity v p = c / n

• However, non-monochromatic waves travelling

together will have a velocity known as Group Velocity: v g = c / ng

Where the fibre 1.49

group index is:
Ref. index

ng
dn 1.46
ng = n − λ
dλ n
1.44
500 λ (nm)1700 1900

15
Properties of Light

Law of Reflection
The angle of Incidence = The angle of reflection

Law of Refraction -
• Light beam is bent towards the normal when passing into a
medium of higher refractive index. n1 < n2
• Light beam is bent away from the normal when passing into
a medium of lower refractive index. n1 > n2

Index of Refraction –
n = Speed of light in a vacuum / Speed of light in a medium

Inverse square law - Light intensity diminishes with square of

distance from source.
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 Reflection and Refraction of Light
Incident Reflected Medium 1
ray ray
φ1 φ1 φ2 Refracted
n1 n2 ray
Boundary θ2
θ1 θ1
n2 n1
Incident φ1 φ1
φ2 ray
Refracted Reflected
ray Medium 2 ray
External Reflection n1 < n2 Internal Reflection n1 > n2
Using the Snell's law at the boundary we have:

n 1 sin φ1 = n 2 sin φ2 or n 1 cos θ1 = n 2 cos θ2

φ1 = The angle of incident with normal

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 Total Internal Reflection

• As φ1 increases (or θ1 n1 > n2 n2

decreases) then there is no refraction
θ1
• The incident angle
φ1 = φ c = Critical Angle φc
n1

• Beyond the critical angle, light ray n1 > n2 n2

becomes totally internally reflected
• When φ2 = 90o (or φ1 = φc) θ1<θc θ1
φ1>φc
n 1 sin φ1 = n 2
n1
−1 n2 
Thus the critical angle φc = sin  
 n1 
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Phase Changes During Propagation

• This figure shows the phenomenon of total internal reflection.

•The red and green coloured dotted lines represent the wave fronts of the light rays.
•The distance between a red and a green wave-front corresponds to a phase difference
of 1800 ( π radians).
• The similar coloured wave-fronts have either 00 or 2π phase difference between
them.
•Thus, when two similar coloured wave-fronts meet, they interfere constructively
and dissimilar coloured wave-fronts interfere destructively.
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Ray Propagation in Fibre - Bound
Rays
φ < φc, α > αmax

5
φ1>φc
3 a
2
2α
α 1 2α
4
Core n1

Air (no =1) Cladding n2

From Snell’s Law:

n 0 sin α = n 1 sin (90 - φ)
α = αmax when φ = φc
Thus, n 0 sin αmax = n 1 cos φc

20
Ray Propagation in Fibre - contd.

Or n 0 sin αmax = n 1 (1 - sin2 φc)0.5


−1  n2
Since φc = sin  
 n1 
0. 5
  n 2 
Then n0 sin α max = n1 1 −  2   = [
n12 − n2 ]
2 0. 5

  n1  

[
= n12 − n22 ]
0.5
= Numerical Aperture ( NA)

NA determines the light

gathering
capabilities of the fibre
21
Ray Propagation in Fibre - contd.

Therefore n 0 sin αmax = NA

 NA 
Fibre acceptance angle α max = sin −1  
 n0 

Note n1 − n2 = ∆ Relative refractive index difference

n1

0.5
Thus NA = n1 (2∆) 0.14< NA < 1

22
Modes in Fibre
A fiber can support:
– many modes (multi-mode fibre).
– a single mode (single mode fibre).
The number of modes (V) [also known as the normalised
frequency] supported in a fiber is determined by the
indices, operating wavelength and the diameter of the core,
given as.
πa
or V= NA
λ
 V< 2.405 corresponds to a single mode fiber.
 By reducing the radius of the fiber, V goes down, and it becomes
impossible to reach a point when only a single mode can be
supported.
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Basic Fibre Properties

Cylindrical
Dielectric
Core Cladding Buffer coating
Waveguide
Low loss
Usually fused silica
Core refractive index > cladding refractive index
Operation is based on total internal reflection

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Types of Fibre
There are two main fibre types:

(1) Step index:

• Multi-mode
• Single mode

(2) Graded index multi-mode

Total number of guided modes M for multi-mode fibres:

Multi-mode SI M = 0.5V 2 Multi-mode GI M ≈ 0.25V 2

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 Step-index Multi-mode Fibre

50-200 µm Output pulse

Input
pulse 120-400µm n1 =1.48-1.5
n2 = 1.46
Advantages: 100 ns/km
• Allows the use of non-coherent optical light source, e.g. LED's
• Facilitates connecting together similar fibres
• Imposes lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.
• Cost effective
Disadvantages:
• Suffer from dispersion (i.e. low bandwidth (a few MHz)
• High power loss
26
Graded-index Multi-mode Fibre

50-100 µm
Input Output
pulse 120-140µm pulse
n2 n1
Advantages: 1ns/km
• Allows the use of non-coherent optical light source, e.g. LED's
• Facilitates connecting together similar fibres
• Imposes lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.
• Reduced dispersion compared with STMMF
Disadvantages:
• Lower bandwidth compared with STSMF
• Higher power loss compared with the STSMF
27
 Step-index Single-mode Fibre

8-12 µm Output pulse

Input
pulse 100-120µm n1 =1.48-1.5
n2 = 1.46
5ps/km
Advantages:
• Only one mode is allowed due to diffraction/interference effects.
• Allows the use high power laser source
• Facilitates fusion splicing similar fibres
• Low dispersion, therefore high bandwidth (a few GHz).
• Low loss (0.1 dB/km)
Disadvantages:
• Cost
28
Single Mode Fiber - Power Distribution

Optical power Guided

Evanescent

Intensity profile of the fundamental mode

29
Fibre Characteristics

• The most important characteristics that limit the

transmission capabilities are:

• Attenuation (loss)

• Dispersion (pulse spreading)

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Attenuation - Standard Fibre
SM-fiber, InGaAsP DFB-laser,
InGaAsP FP-laser or LED ~ 1990 Optical amplifiers
10 MM-fibre, GaAs- 80nm 180 nm
laser or LED
5
Attenuation (dB/km)

2.0
Fourth Generation,
1.0 1996, 1.55 µm
WDM-systems
0.5

0.2 1300
nm 1550
nm
0.1
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Wavelength (nm)
c
Bandwidth ∆f = 2 ∆λ = 1.142 x 1014 Hz |λ1300 nm + 2.2475 1014 Hz |λ1550 nm
λ
31
Attenuation (Loss α) - contd.
Fibre
Pi Po
α
L

The output power Po (L)= Pi (0).e- αpL

Fibre attenuation coefficient 1  Po 

α p = ln 
(αp = α scattering + α absorption + α bending) L  Pi 

10  Po 
Or in dB/km, fibre attenuation
= α = log   4.343α p (km −1 )
L  Pi 

32
Fibre Attenuation - contd.
• In a typical system, the total loss could bas 20-30 dB, before it
needs amplification.

So, at 0.2 dB/km, this corresponds to a distance of 100-150 km.

Attenuation along the fibre link can be

measured using Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer (OTDR)

33
Fibre Dispersion
• Data carried in an optical fibre consists of pulses of light energy
consists of a large number of frequencies travelling at a given rate.
• There is a limit to the highest data rate (frequency) that can be
sent down a fibre and be expected to emerge intact at the output.
• This is because of a phenomenon known as Dispersion (pulse
spreading), which limits the "Bandwidth” of the fibre.
T
τ
s i( t ) Many modes so ( t )
Output
L pulse

Cause of Dispersion:
• Chromatic (Intramodal) Dispersion
• Modal (Intermodal) Dispersion
34
Chromatic Dispersion
• It is a result of group velocity being a function of wavelength.
In any given mode different spectral components of a pulse traveling
through the fibre at different speed.
• It depends on the light Laser δλ = 1-2 nm
source spectral characteristics. δλ = R.M.S Spectral
width
LED δλ = 40 nm
(many modes)
wavelength
• May occur in all fibre, but is the dominant in single mode fibre
• Main causes:
• Material dispersion - different wavelengths => different speeds
• Waveguide dispersion: different wavelengths => different angles

35
 n∝λ
Material Dispersion λ0 c
=n = , n
λ v
Refractive index of silica is frequency dependent. Thus different
frequency (wavelength) components travel at different speed

RMS pulse broadening τ mat =− Lδ λ λ d 2

n
ns / km δ λ = ∆λ
c dλ2
Where material dispersion
coefficient: 175
2nd window
λ d n2
ps / nm.km
100
D mat = −
c d λ2 Dmat 0
Note: Negative sign, indicates that low
wavelength components arrives before -100
higher wavelength components. 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7
λ
36
Example
A glass fiber exhibits material dispersion given by λ
2
(d 2
)
n1 d λ 2 of 0.025.
Determine the material dispersion parameter at a wavelength of 0.85 μm, and
estimate the rms pulse broadening per kilometre for a good LED source with an rms
spectral width of 20 nm at this wavelength.
Solution: D mat

λ d 2 n1
=τ mat L=
δλ δ λ LD mat
c dλ 2

τ mat (1 km)
37
Waveguide Dispersion
• This results from variation of the group velocity with wavelength
for a particular mode. Depends on the size of the fibre.
• This can usually be ignored in multimode fibres, since it is very
small compared with material dispersion.
• However it is significant in monomode fibres.
175
Waveguide dispersion
100

Dmat 0
Total dispersion

-100 Material dispersion

0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7
λ
38
Waveguide Dispersion
θ is the angle of incident with normal
c
v= sin θ
n1

If the wavelength increases:- Smaller

Wavelength
• The values of θ defining the
points of intersection will
decrease Longer
Wavelength
• The effective velocity of the
mode along the guide will
decrease.
And vice versa.
Hence we will have waveguide
dispersion.
39
Modal (Intermodal) Dispersion
• Lower order modes travel travelling almost parallel to the centre
line of the fibre cover the shortest distance, thus reaching the end of
fibre sooner.
• The higher order modes (more zig-zag rays) take a longer route
as they pass along the fibre and so reach the end of the fibre later.

• Mainly in multimode fibres

Cladding n2
c 2 90- φ
v = sin φ φ Core n1
n1 θ
α 1

40
 Modal Dispersion - SIMMF
The time taken for ray 1 to propagate a length
of fibre L gives the minimum delay time L L Ln1
(Φ=90 ):
o t
=
v
=
c t min =
n1
sin φ c
The time taken for the ray to propagate a length
of fibre L gives the maximum delay time Ln12
tmax =
(Φ=Φc): cn2
Since
n2
sin φ c = = cosθ L cos θ
n1 t max =
c n1

The delay difference Ln1

δTs = t max − t min δ Ts
= ( n1 − n2 )
cn2

2
Since relative refractive index (n −n ) Ln
∆= 1 2 Thus δTs ≈ 1 ∆
difference n cn2
1
41
Modal Dispersion - SIMMF
(n1−n2 )
For ∆<< 1, ∆= and NA = n1 (2∆) 0.5
n2
L( NA) 2
δTs ≈
2cn1

For a rectangular input pulse, the RMS pulse broadening due to

modal dispersion at the output of the fibre is:
Ln1∆ L (NA ) 2
τ modal
= =
3.5c 7 n1C

Total dispersion = chromatic dispersion + modal dispersion

2 2
τT =[τchrom +τ modal ]1 / 2
42
Modal Dispersion - GIMMF

 The delay difference Ln1∆2

δTs ≈
2c

 the RMS pulse broadening

Ln1∆2
τ modal −GI =
34.6C

43
Dispersion - Consequences
I- Frequency Limitation (Bandwidth)
L = L1
T
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 1 B
L L = L2 > L1
• Maximum frequency limitation of
signal, which can be sent along a fibre 1 0 1 0 0 1
• Intersymbol interference (ISI), which
is unacceptable in digital systems which
depend on the precise sequence of pulses. Intersymbol interference

II- Distance: A given length of fibre, has a maximum frequency

(bandwidth) which can be sent along it. To increase the bandwidth for
the same type of fibre one needs to decrease the length of the fibre.
44
45
Bandwidth Limitations
• Maximum channel bandwidth B:
• For non-return-to-zero (NRZ) data format: B = BT /2
• For return-to-zero (RZ) data format: B = BT
Where the maximum bit rate BT = 1/T, and T = bit duration.
• If T< 2δTs then the two neighbouring pulses will merge
and will be indistinguishable.
• For zero pulse overlap at the output of the fibre, BT <= 1/2τ
where τ is the pulse width.
BT (max) = 1/2δTs
• For a Gaussian shape pulse: BT ≤ 0.2/τrms
where τrms is the RMS pulse width.
BT (max) =0.2/ τmodal
or
BT (max) =0.2/ τT Total dispersion
46
Bandwidth Distance Product (BDP)
The BDP is the bandwidth of a kilometer of fibre and is a constant
for any particular type of fibre.
Bopt * L = BT * L (MHz.km)

For example, A multimode fibre has a BDP of 20 MHz.km, then:-

- 1 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 20 MHz

- 2 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 10 MHz

Typical B.D.P. for different types of fibres are:

• SI Multimode 6 - 25 MHz.km
• GI Multimode 100 - 1000 MHZ.km
• Single Mode 500 - 1500 MHz.km

47
Bandwidth Distance Product

100
Bit rate B (Gbps)

10

0.1
1 10 100 1000 10,000

Distance L (km)

Dmat = 17 ps/km.nm
48
 Example
• A step index fibre with n1= 1.48 and n2 = 1.46.
δ Tsn1 1.48 × (1.48 − 1.46 )
= ( n1 − n2=) 8
= 67 ns/km
L cn2 3 × 10 × 1.46
For this fibre with a length of 1 km the minimum pulse separation is
T ≈ 2δT s = 134 ns
giving a maximum pulse repetition rate (or Bandwidth) of
1 1  This step index fibre has a
≈ ≈ 7.5 MHz
2δT s 134 × 10 −9 bandwidth-distance product of
7.5 MHz-km.

 If the fibre length is increased to 2 km

 Then the δTs is doubled, T is doubled and the
maximum pulse repetition rate reduces to 3.7 MHz. 49
Controlling Dispersion
For single mode fibre:

• Wavelength 1300:
- Dispersion is very small
- Loss is high compared to 1550 nm wavelength
• Wavelength 1550:
- Dispersion is high compared with 1300 nm
- Loss is low

Limitation due to dispersion can be removed by moveing

zero-diepersion point from 1300 nm to 1550 nm. How?

By controlling the waveguide dispersion.

Fibre with this property are called Dispersion-Shifted Fibres
50
Controlling Dispersion
20

Dispersion
10
shifted

0
Dispersion
Standard flattened
-10

-20
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Wavelength ( µm)

51
Summary

• Nature of light : Particle and wave

• Light is part of EM spectrum

• Phase and group velocities

• Reflection, refraction and total internal reflection etc.
• Types of fibre
• Attenuation and dispersion

52