Vật lý Vật liệu

(Materials Physics)
Chương III: Vật lý Lượng tử
TS. Phạm Tấn Thi
Khoa Khoa học Ứng dụng
Bộ môn Vật Lý Kỹ thuật Y Sinh
 Affiliation:
R&D and Project Management Office
Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Faculty of Applied Science,
Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT)

Education:
B.Sc. in Physics, University of Science, VNUHCM
M.Sc. in Physics, Osaka University, Japan
Contac Info.:
Ph.D. in Physics, Osaka University, Japan
Pham Tan Thi
Room No.: 314-A4
Research Interests:
Email: ptthi@hcmut.edu.vn
• Artificial Intelligence for Medical Diagnosis
Mobile: 0939.057.206
• Light Emitting Diodes for Agriculture, Food Safety,
Sleep Disorder
• Novel Optical Materials
Ag/Graphene Oxide Composite as catalysis for
PAP reduction
P. T. Thi et al., Materials Research
Express (under review).
 PHYSICS TILL 19TH CENTURY
Up until the year 1900, classical physics was able to explain all the phenomena on the basis of
principles that were simple but fundamental. The most important of these, on which all the theories
of classical physics are based, assumes that space and time are absolute physical quantities, in other
words they are the same for all observers.
Particle Model (particles, bodies)
• Motion in 3 dimensions; for each time t, position and speed are known (well-defined numbers).
Mass is known
• Systems and rigid objects (extension of particle model)

Wave Model (light, sound,….)

• Generalization of the particle model: energy is transported, which can be spread (de-localized)
• Interference
 PHYSICS TILL 19TH CENTURY (CONT.)
Scientists are convinced that the particle and wave model can describe the evolution of the
Universe, when folded with
• Newton’s laws (dynamics)
• Description of forces: Maxwell’s equations; Law of Gravity, etc.
 PHYSICS TILL 19TH CENTURY (CONT.)
• We live in a 3D world, and motion happens in an absolute time. Time and space
(distances) intervals are absolute
• The Universe is homogeneous and isotropical; time is homogeneous.
• The Physics entities can be described either in the particle or in the wave model.
• The variables involved in the description are continuous.

Isotropic Homogeneous
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Electromagnetism is a wave

Wave-formed equation

Speed of Light
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
The energy of a wave is given by its intensity
 SOMETHING WENT WRONG:
RELATIVITY, CONTINUITY, WAVE/PARTICLE DUALITY
In the beginning of the XX century, it was
known that atoms were made of a heavy
nucleus, with positive charge, and by light
negative electrons
• Electrostatics like gravity: planetary model
• All orbits allowed

Michelson-Morley Experiments • But: electrons, being accelerated, should

 Speed of light is constant radiate and eventually fall into the nucleus

Wave-Particle Duality
 KIRCHHOFF’S
THEORY OF GAS
 EVIDENCE OF
PARTICLE CHARACTERS OF LIGHT
 PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
Max Planck found a correct law for the black body radiation by assuming that each oscillator can only
exchange energy in discrete portions or quanta

The energy exchanges between radiation and matter must be discrete and energy of radiation E = nh

Average energy per standing wave

Planck’s modification

h = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s is Planck’s constant

 PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT
Heinrich Hertz in 1887 later on, it was explained by Albert Einstein in 1905
It was during this study of electromagnetic waves that he saw the if one sends ultraviolet light onto
metals, you’ll get sparks coming off. Experiment:
The time between the incidence and emission of a photoelectron is very
small, < 10-9 s.
Classically: raise intensity => more electrons
independent of frequency
Linear frequency dependence of energy: E ∝ (a + bω)
Slope straight line: E = ℏ(ω – ωo) = ℎ( - o)

Einstein’s Interpretation: postulating discrete

quanta of light
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity:
E2 = (moc2)2 + p2c2 = ℏω
For massless particle:
p = ℏω/c ≡ ℏ

The momentum of the photon correspond to the propagation

of the light wave
CAN REVERSE BE TRUE?
 COMPTON EFFECT

• Compton’s experiment showed that, at any given angle, a different

frequency of radiation is observed
 The graphs show the scattered x-ray for various angles
• Treating the photon as a particle of energy hf explains the
phenomenon. The shifted peak, λ‘> λo, is caused by the scattering
of free electrons

Compton’s shift equation

DISCONTINUITY
 RITZ COMBINATION PRINCIPLE
New spectral lines can be found by additive and
subtractive combination of two known spectral lines.
Assuming E = ℏω, and considering the transition of an
atom from a state with energy Ef to a state with energy En
ℏωfn = Ef - En = Ef - Em + Em - En
For the frequencies
ωfn = ωfm + ωmn

Ef
ℏωfm
ℏωfn
Em
ℏωmn

En G. Lee and Y. I. Park, Nanomaterials (2018).

SUPERPOSITION
STERN-GERLACH EXPERIMENT
 INTERPRETATION

Electronic Configuration For “massless” particle, left-

Ag: [Kr] 4d10 5s1 handed chirality turns spin-up;
right-handed chirality turns
spin-down
 INTERPRETATION-II
Magnetic moment µ of the atom is proportional to the electron spin

Because the interaction energy of the magnetic moment with the magnetic field is just −μ·B, the z-
component of the force experienced by the atom is given by

Assume that B is in z-direction only.

• µz > 0 (Sz < 0) atom experiences upward force

• µz < 0 (Sz > 0) atom experiences downward force

This “quantization” of the electron spin angular momentum

SEQUENTIAL STERN-GERLACH EXPERIMENTS
SEQUENTIAL STERN-GERLACH EXPERIMENTS
 INTERPRETATION: ANALOGY WITH LIGHT POLARIZATION
Considering a monochromatic light wave propagating in the z-direction. A linearly polarized (or plane
polarized) light with a polarization vector in the x-direction has a space-time dependent electric field
oscillating in the x-direction
E = Eox̂ cos(kz – ωt)
Considering a y-polarized light, also propagating in the z-direction
E = Eoŷ cos(kz – ωt)

An x-filter becomes a y-filter when rotated by 90o about the

propagation (z) direction
An x-filter becomes a y-filter when rotated by 90o
about the propagation (z) direction

An x-filter
becomes a x’-
filter when
rotated by 45o
In the triple-filter arrangement of Figure, the beam coming out of the first about the
Polaroid is an x̂-polarized beam, which can be regarded as a linear combination propagation (z)
of an x′-polarized beam and a y′-polarized beam. The second Polaroid selects direction
the x′-polarized beam, which can in turn be regarded as a linear combination of
an x-polarized and a y-polarized beam. And finally, the third Polaroid selects the
y-polarized component.
Assuming states of spin-1/2, |Sx;+> and |Sx;-> are the
combinations (superposition) of spins Sz

the unblocked component coming out of the second (SGxˆ)

apparatus is to be regarded as a superposition of Sz+ and Sz−
We observe an Sz± beam going in the x-direction and subject it
to an SGyˆ apparatus, the resulting situation will be very
similar to the case where an Sz± beam going in the y-direction
is subjected to an SGxˆ apparatus. The kets for Sy± should
then be regarded as a linear combination of |Sz; ±⟩, but it
appears from equations that we have already used up the
available possibilities in writing |Sx ; ±⟩
SUPERPOSITION
 DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT

The diffraction pattern is

consistent with the
diffraction of waves with
 de BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS
“Light can behave like a particle and Matter/Electron can behaves like a wave”
Energy of Photon by Special Relativity:
E = pc
Energy of Photon by Planck’s theory:
E=ℎ
de Broglie’s wavelength:

h
λ=
p
Wave if λ << scale
Particle if λ >> Scale

It turns out that everything’s kind of mixed together at the fundamental microscopic scale.
HYDROGEN’S SPECTRA
 ELECTRONS IN ATOMS: A SEMICLASSICAL MODEL
(Bohr Model)
Similar to waves on a cord, let’s imagine that the only
possible stable waves are stationary...

2πr = n
de Broglie’s equation gives:

Angular momentum is quantized (Bohr postulated it...)

 HYDROGEN ATOM (Z = 1)

m
r
(SI units)

Total energy E < 0 (bound state)

<Ek> = - <Ep/2> (true in general for bound states, virial theorem)
L = nℎ = mvr

Only special values are possible for the radius!

 HYDROGEN ATOM (Z = 1): ENERGY LEVELS
The radius can only assume values (acceptable)

The smallest radius (Bohr’s radius) is

Radius and energy are related

Energy is quantized
HYDROGEN ATOM (Z = 1): EXCITATION AND DE-EXCITATION
An electron, passing from an orbit of energy Ei to an orbit with Ef < Ei, emits energy
[a photon such that f = (Ei – Ef)/h]
HYDROGEN ATOM (Z = 1): LEVEL TRANSITIONS
AND ENERGY QUANTA
 LIMITATIONS
 Semiclassical models wave-particle duality can explain phenomena, but the
thing is still unsatisfactory,
o When do particles behave as particles, when do they behave as waves?
E = ℏω p = ℏk
o According to Maxwell’s equations: an electron or any other charge will
radiate energy on acceleration. Why the atom is stable?
 We need to rewrite the fundamental models, rebuilding the foundations of
physics..
 WAVEFUNCTION
 Reconsider the basic model
 We can describe the position of a particle through a wavefunction (r,t).
This can account for the concepts of wave and particle (extension and
simplification).
 Can we simply use the D’Alembert waves, real waves?.... NO
 WAVEFUNCTION - II
 We want a new kind of “waves” which can account for particles, old waves,
and obey to F = ma.
o They should reproduce the characteristics of “real” particles: a particle
can display interference corresponding to a size of 10-7 m, but has a
radius smaller than 10-10 m.
 Wave of not energy
dE ∝ | (r,t)|2dV
but of probability
dP ∝ | (r,t)|2dV
The square of the wavefunction is the intensity, and it gives the probability to
find the particle in a given time in a given place.
 SCHRÖDINDER EQUATION
Close to the beginning of the 20th century, people thought that physics was
understood. Two models: waves, particles. But:
o Quantization at atomic level became experimentally evident
o Particle-like behavior of radiation can be considered in some conditions as a
set of particles (photons) each with energy
E = ℎf = ℎω
o Wave-like property of particles: particles behave in certain conditions as
waves with wavenumber
p = ℎ/ = ℏk
Planck’s constant, ℎ = 6.6 x 10-34 J.s
Concepts of wave and particle need to be unified: wavefunction (r,t)