SIF1004/SMES1204:

Modern Physics

SIX1011: Contemporary Physics

Revision Lecture
21 Mei 2018
 Special
theory of
relativity

Cosmology
Quantum
and
Theory
astrophysics

Modern /
Contemporary
Physics

Particle Atomic
physics matter

Nuclear
Physics and
Radioactivity
No. Topic Details
1. Special theory of relativity Galileo-Newtonian relativity, Michelson-Morley experiment, Special theory of
relativity postulates; Lorentz transformation, Lorentz contraction, time dilation
Relativity of Mass, Momentum and Energy, 4-vector time-position: 4-vector,
velocity 4-vector, momentum 4-vector and momentum–energy.

2. Quantum Theory The need for quantum theory, Duality of Particle-Wave, Wave Function,
Heisenberg uncertainty, Time independent Schrodinger equation, Examples in 1-
D: zero free particle and infinite square well potential.
3. Atomic matter summary of atomic structure and the physics of periodic table, Types of Atomic
Bonding, Van de Waals bond, X-ray spectrum and atomic number, Crystal
structures, basic concept of phonons , Introduction to electron conduction in
conductor, semiconductor and insulator.

4. Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity Structure and characteristics of nucleus, binding energy, Nuclear forces.
Radioactivity, Conservation Laws, Q-value, natural Radioactivity Series, Nuclear
reactions, nuclear reactor and technology
5. Particle physics Elementary particles and forces
6. Cosmology and astrophysics Introduction to Big-Bang theory, structure and evolution of stars and galaxies
1 Special Relativity
Important Concepts
• What are inertial frames?
• First Newton Law
• Galilean Relativity
• Theories of light
• Corpuscular and wave theories
• Proofs
• Ether
• Postulates of Special Relativity
Important Concepts
• Time dilation and length contraction (incl. proofs)
• 𝑡′ = 𝛾𝑡
𝐿
• 𝐿′ =
𝛾

• Energy-Momentum relationships
• 𝐸 2 = 𝑝2 𝑐 2 + 𝑚 2 𝑐 4
• Approximations: Non-relativistic, ultra-relativistic, Kinetic energy, Rest energy
• 4-vectors
2 Quantum Physics
The Need for Quantum Physics

Line spectrum Blackbody radiation

Issues in Classical
Physics
Photoelectric effect Compton effect
Photoelectric effect When short wavelength light illuminates a
clean metal surface, electrons are ejected
from the metal. These photoelectrons
produce a photocurrent. The intensity light
in curve a is double of curve b.

What is the working mechanism?

9
• V is varied until it reaches a certain value,
called the stopping potential Vstop, at which
point the reading of meter A has just
dropped to zero
• The saturated photocurrents are found
proportional to the incident light intensity.
• However, the stopping potential is
independent of light intensity.
• The kinetic energy of the most energetic
photoelectrons is:

K max = eVstop
• Kmax does not depend on the intensity of
the light!
Black body radiation: summary
Black body radiation: Planck’s theory

Energy density

I (, t) = 2hc2  -5
ehc/ kT -1
fmax ∝ T

Planck’s blackbody
spectrum
Challenge!
energy density
Line Spectra
• When an electric discharge is passed through a gas, light is emitted
which, when examined spectroscopically, is typically found to consist
of a series of lines, each of which has a sharply defined frequency.
Line Spectra
• E.g.
1 1
𝜔𝑚,𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑅0 𝑐 2 − 2
𝑛 𝑚
• 𝑅0 = Rydberg constant; 𝑚, 𝑛 = integers
• Assume that the light emitted from the atom consists of photons whose
ത 𝑚,𝑛 → energy of the atom emitting the photon must have
energies are ℎ𝜔
been changed by the same amount
• Conclusion: energy of the hydrogen atom is itself quantized,meaning that it
can adopt only one of the values 𝐸𝑛 where:

• -ve sign = binding energy of atom

Line Spectra
 Photons Have Momentum:
Compton Effect

hf h  = 71 nm
p= = (photon momentum)
c 

What is the main idea?

• 1923, Arthur Compton – supported that E, p are transferred via photons

• measured the wavelength and intensity of the x-rays that were scattered in various
direction from carbon target.
• Here hf is the energy of the incident x-ray photon, hf’ is the energy of the scattered x-ray photon,
and K is the kinetic energy of the recoiling electron.
• Since electron may recoil at speed approaching c, we must use the relativistic expression for K

Conservation of momentum x-axis

Conservation of momentum y-axis

Challenge!

h/mc is a constant called the Compton wavelength.

De Broglie Hypothesis: matter waves
• All moving matter/particle has a WAVE associated with it.
• The energy, 𝐸 and momentum, 𝑝 of the particle concept are connected
with the frequency, 𝜈 and wavelength,  of the wave concept through
Planck’s constant as:
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈; 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝 (De Broglie Wavelength)
Or 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘
2𝜋
• Where: ℏ = Dirac’s constant (= ℎ/2𝜋), 𝐸 = ℏ𝜔, 𝑘 = is the

wavenumber, 𝜔 = 2𝑓 is the angular frequency.
• Experiment condition : 𝜆 ≥ 𝑎, a represents a characteristic dimension of
an optical apparatus eg. width of a lens/mirror/slit. Diffraction effect are
easily observed.
Schrödinger’s Equation
• Justification for Schrödinger’s Equation:
• Wave equation + de Broglie
• Form of Schrödinger’s Equation:

• Use separation of variables: Ψ x, t = 𝜓 𝑥 𝑇 𝑡

• Constant 𝐸Ψ on LHS and RHS
𝑖𝐸𝑡
• Gives solution: 𝑇 𝑡 = 𝑇0 𝑒ℏ

• Gives Time Independent Schrödinger’s Equation:

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− + 𝑉𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
Schrödinger’s Equation
• TISE:
ℏ2 𝑑 2𝜓
− + 𝑉𝜓 = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
• Solution in form: Ψ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
• Wave function Ψ(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) represent
2
a complex function in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏; 𝑎 and 𝑏 are
real number, imaginary value 𝑖 = −1
• The space and time variable could be grouped separately
Ψ 2 = Ψ ∗ Ψ (Probability Density)
• where, Ψ ∗ is complex conjugate
• It represent the probability of finding the particle in a given unit volume and time
• Because the e- has to have a probability of unity of being observed somewhere along the
screen, we integrate the probability density over all space by integrating over ranges
from −∞ to ∞ → NORMALIZATION
+∞
2
න Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−∞
 Schrödinger’s Equation
• Infinite square well solution (use TISE)
In the (2), 𝑉 = 0, therefore TISE has the same form of a free particle:
ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
With a solution: 𝜓 = 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵 sin(𝑘𝑥).
• In (1) and (3), we need 𝜓 = 0. We therefore have 2 boundary conditions at
𝑥 ± 𝑎:
𝑥 = +𝑎: 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑎 + 𝐵 sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0 1
𝑥 = −𝑎: Acos(𝑘𝑎) − Bsin(𝑘𝑎) = 0 (2)
• We therefore have solutions:
• Trivial: 𝐴 = 𝐵 = 0
• Non-trivial:
1 𝜋
1 2 3
1 + 2 : 2𝐴 cos 𝑘𝑎 = 0 → 𝑘 = 𝑚 +
2 𝑎
𝑚𝜋
1 − 2 : 2𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑎 = 0 → 𝑘 =
𝑎
• These two sets of solutions can be summarized as:
𝑛𝜋
𝑘=
2𝑎
• For energy, we therefore have:
ℏ 2 𝑘 2 ℏ 2 𝜋2 2
𝐸𝑛 = = 𝑛
2𝑚 8𝑚𝑎2
Quantized Energy
𝑛𝜋 2𝑚𝐸𝑛
• The quantized wave number now becomes: 𝑘𝑛 = =
𝐿 ħ2

2 𝜋2 ħ2 ℎ2
• Solving for the energy yields 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛 where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … or 𝐸𝑛 = 𝑛2
2𝑚𝐿2 8𝑚𝐿2
• Note that the energy depends on the integer values of n. Hence the energy is quantized and non-
zero.
𝜋2 ħ2
• The special case of n = 1 is called the ground state energy. 𝐸𝑛 =
2𝑚𝐿2

Imagine a 3-D probability distribution function!

3 Atomic Physics
 Structure of the Atom

• Pieces of evidence that scientists had in 1900 to indicate that the atom was not a
fundamental unit:

1) There seemed to be too many kinds of atoms, each belonging to a distinct chemical
element.
2) The problem of valence. Certain elements combine with some elements but not with
others, a characteristic that hinted at an internal atomic structure.
3) The discoveries of radioactivity, of x rays, and of the electron.
 Thomson’s Atomic Model
◼ Thomson’s “plum-pudding” model of the atom had the positive charges
spread uniformly throughout a sphere the size of the atom, with
electrons embedded in the uniform background.

◼ In Thomson’s view, when the atom was heated (with kinetic energy),
the electrons could vibrate about their equilibrium positions (simple
harmonic oscillation around the center of the sphere), thus producing
electromagnetic radiation.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
◼ even if the α particle scattered from all 79 electrons in
each atom of gold.

The experimental results were not consistent with Thomson’s

atomic model.

◼ Rutherford proposed that an atom has a positively charged core

(nucleus) surrounded by the negative electrons.

The positive charge is concentrated in

a nucleus with a radius much smaller than 10 -10 m
Rutherford Scattering
◼ Scattering experiments help to study matter too small to be
observed directly.
◼ There is a relationship between the impact parameter b and the
scattering angle θ.

When b is small,
r gets small.
Coulomb force gets large.
θ can be large and the particle can be repelled backward.
The Classical Atomic Model
• Consider an atom as a planetary system.
• The Newton’s 2nd Law force of attraction on the
electron by the nucleus is:
1 e2 mv2
Fe = =
4 0 r 2
r
where v is the tangential velocity of the electron:

v=
e e2
 K = 12 mv = 12
2
4 0 mr 4 0 r

• Define potential energy, V = 0 when the electron is infinitely distant from the
nucleus.
Negative means the system is bound,
Coulomb force is attractive

The total energy is then:

The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Niels Bohr’s general assumptions: n=1
n=2
1) “Stationary states” (orbiting electrons do not
radiate energy) exist in atoms and have well-
defined energies, En.
2) Transitions can occur between them, yielding
E = E1 − E2 = hf. Classical laws of physics do
not apply to transitions between stationary
states.
3) The angular momentum of the nth state is
quantized, 𝑳 = 𝒓 × 𝒑 = 𝑛ℏ𝑟 where n is
called the Principal Quantum Number. n=3

n = 1,2,3,…
Consequences of the Bohr Model
•The angular momentum is:

L = mvr = n

So the velocity is: v = n / mr

e n2 2 e2 a0
But: v= So: =
4 0 mr 2 2
mr 4 0 mr

4 0 2
Solving for rn: rn = n 2 a0 where: a0 
me 2

a0 is called the Bohr radius. It’s the diameter of the Hydrogen atom (in its
lowest-energy, or “ground,” state).
The Hydrogen Atom Quantization of
total energy
• The energies of the stationary states
where E0 = 13.6 eV.
Outer shell, valence shell

◼ Emission of light occurs when the atom is

in an excited state and decays to a lower
energy state (nu → nℓ).
1st excited
state hn = Eu − E
where n is the frequency of a photon.
1 n
hn
= = =
 c hc

R∞ is the Rydberg constant.

Inner shell
Ground state
General flow:
Identify the Solve & find the
Start with
potential energy: wave functions to
Schrodinger
𝑒2 give Quantum
equation in 3-D eg. 𝑉 𝑟 = −
4𝜋𝑟 2 Numbers (n, ℓ, mℓ)

Draw the probability Compute the energy

distribution function levels
Application of the Schrödinger Equation to the
Hydrogen Atom
◼ The approximation of the potential energy of the electron-proton system is
electrostatic:

◼ Rewrite the three-dimensional time-independent Schrödinger Equation.

For Hydrogen-like atoms (He+ or Li++)

◼ Replace e2 with Ze2 (Z is the atomic number).
1
◼ Use appropriate reduced mass 𝜇 = 1.
σ𝑖
𝑚𝑖
Application of the Schrödinger Equation
• The wave function 𝜓 is a function of 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 .
Equation is separable.
Solution may be a product of three functions.
Equation 2

• We can separate Equation 1 into three separate differential equations,

each depending on one coordinate: r , 𝜃, or 𝜙
Quantum Numbers
The three quantum numbers:
• n Principal quantum number
• ℓ Orbital angular momentum quantum number
• mℓ Magnetic quantum number

The boundary conditions:

• n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . Integer
• ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1 Integer
• mℓ = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, . . . , 0, 1, . . . , ℓ − 1, ℓ Integer

The restrictions for quantum numbers:

• n>0
• ℓ<n
• |mℓ| ≤ ℓ
Hydrogen Atom Radial Wave Functions
• First few radial wave functions Rnℓ
Table 1

• Subscripts on R specify the values of n and ℓ.

Normalized Spherical Harmonics
Magnetic Quantum Number mℓ
• The angle is a measure of the rotation about the z axis.
• The solution for specifies that mℓ is an integer and related to the z
component of L.

◼ The relationship of L, Lz, ℓ, and

mℓ for ℓ = 2.
◼ is fixed
because Lz is quantized.
◼ Only certain orientations of
are possible and this is called
space quantization.
Selection Rules
• We can use the wave functions to calculate transition probabilities for
the electron to change from one state to another.

Allowed transitions:
• Electrons absorbing or emitting photons to change states when Δℓ = ±1.
Forbidden transitions:
• Other transitions possible but occur with much smaller probabilities
when Δℓ ≠ ±1.
Spin-Orbit Coupling
• Interaction energy can be expressed in terms of a the scalar product
of the angular-momentum vectors 𝐿 and 𝑆 → spin-orbit coupling
• Define the total angular momentum
𝐽 =𝐿+𝑆
1
• We can then have states in which 𝑗 = 𝑙 ± , corresponding to
2
whether 𝐿 and S have parallel z-components or not
1 3
• E.g. For 𝑙 = 1, 𝑗 = or → in spectroscopic notation, these 𝑝 states
2 2
2 2
are labeled P1/2 and P3/2 , respectively, with P indicating 𝑙 = 1
Pauli Exclusion Principle and Many e- Atoms

• This principle applies not only to electrons but also to protons and
neutrons, all of which have spin, s=½. The principle is known as the Pauli
exclusion principle after Wolfgang Pauli, who formulated it in 1925
• For many-electrons atoms, no two electrons in an atom can have the same
values for all quantum numbers (𝑛, 𝑙, 𝑚𝑙 , 𝑚𝑠 )
• Each quantum state corresponds to a certain distribution of the electron
“cloud”
Atomic Bonding: Ionic
• Between 2 charged/ionized
atoms
• e.g. NaCl
• Na gives one 3s e- (EreqNa = 5.138
eV)
• Cl receives one 3p e- (EreqCl = 3.163
eV)
• Δ𝐸 = 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑁𝐴 − 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑐𝐶𝐿 = 1.525
eV
• ∃ a minimum 𝑈 for NaCl
bonding = -5.7 eV at 𝑑 = 0.24
nm
Atomic Bonding: Covalent
• Attraction supplied by a pair of
electrons (c.f. Pauli)
• Charge clouds concentrated
primarily in the region between
the two molecules
• Due to exclusion principle, it is
highly directional
• E.g. 𝐻2, one atom provides one
𝑒 − , with 𝐸𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑 = −4.48 eV
Atomic Bonding: van der Waals and Hydrogen

van der Waals Hydrogen

• Interaction between electric • Created by proton (H + ion)
dipole moments of atoms or between 2 atoms
molecules • Polarization induces dipoles to
• 𝐸𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑 ≤ −0.1 eV form, attracting them to H + ion
1 • 𝐸𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑 ≤ −0.5 eV
• Attraction drops of quickly ∝
𝑟6
When 1 mole of metal are brought A Band Diagram is
together. generated
 Electronic structure of Solids

Overlapping levels
Outer levels begin to interact
Individual atoms

Electron energy
What is the Fermi energy?

a) −13.1 eV

b) the width of the largest band in the solid

c) the energy needed to initiate a current in a metal

d) the average total energy of the electrons within the solid

e) the highest occupied energy level of a solid when its at absolute

zero
 Conductor Semiconductors Insulators
• Outermost band not • Similar to insulators • Valence band full or
completely filled but narrow band gap nearly full
• Essentially no band • Wide band gap with
gap, band overlap empty conduction
band
Metallic Conductor Semi Conductor Insulator

Empty
bands

conduction small Large

band no band Band
band gap Gap
valence band
gap

filled
bands
The p-n junction:
The Junction Rectifier, An Example:
 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

In some semiconductors, including gallium

arsenide, the energy can be emitted as a photon of
energy hf at wavelength
4 Nuclear Physics and Radiactivity
Nuclear Structure
The atomic nucleus consists
of positively charged protons
and neutral neutrons.
 atomic mass
number atomic
number


  =
A  +
Z N

Numberof protons Numberof Numberof
and neutrons protons neutrons

Nucleons

Nuclides with same Z but different A are called isotopes, e.g., 173Au to 204Au
Radionuclides decay (or disintegrate) by emitting a particle, thereby
transforming into a different nuclide
 The Strong Nuclear Force and the Stability of the Nucleus

2 positive charges – very close – repel each other with a very strong
electrostatic force.
The mutual repulsion of the protons tends to push the nucleus apart.
What then, holds the nucleus together?

Must have some force that can hold nucleus together

➔ Attractive force

Nucleus together
➔ strong nuclear force
Nuclear Structure
• difficult to define precisely the radius of a
nucleus as it is the radius of an atom.
• average distribution for atomic electrons
• from electron-scattering experiment,

r  A1/3

r = roA1/3 ( )
r  1.2 10 −15 m A1 3

ro = 1.2 x 10-15 m
The Mass Deficit of the Nucleus and Nuclear Binding Energy

• Because of SNF, the nucleons in a stable nucleus are held together.

• Therefore, energy is required to separate a stable nucleus → proton,
neutron
• More stable nucleus → high energy is needed
• According, Einstein`s theory - energy and mass are equivalent; the rest
energy and mass are related via E = mc2
• Therefore, a change in Eo→  m of the system
• Binding Energy, 𝐸𝐵𝐸 – to disassemble the nucleus appears as extra mass of
the separated and stationary nucleons
•  individual masses of the separated protons and neutrons (m ) >> mnucleus
• Diff. Mass (m) known as the mass defect of the nucleus
Nuclear Binding Energies

The mass M of the nucleus is less than the total mass of its individual nucleons m →
nucleus has less energy than all the separated nucleons → this energy difference
(binding energy) favors the nucleons binding into a nucleus.

Ebe =  ( mc2 ) - Mc2 ( binding energy ) (42-7)

If we could tear apart a nucleus into its separate nucleons, the work required
would be Ebe.
Nuclear
Ebe = (Nmneutronc2 + Zmprotonc2) – mnucleusc2 binding
energy

binding energy per nucleon

Ebe
Eben = ( binding energy per nucleon ) (42-8)
A
Eben represents the average energy holding each nucleon into the nucleus.
Nuclear Binding Energies
If weakly bound nuclei transform into more strongly bound nuclei, the total mass can
be reduced and the mass energy of the final state is lower than the mass energy of the
initial state. Where does the excess initial mass energy go?

Fission: A nucleus with a

larger mass (U, Pu) splits
into nuclei with smaller
total mass (larger binding
energy). Energy is
released, e.g., nuclear
reactor, nuclear weapons.
fusion fission
Fusion: Two nuclei
combine to form a single
more tightly bound
nucleus, e.g., H+H →He
hydrogen bomb and the
sun
Atomic Masses

1 u = 1.66053873 10-27 kg (42-4)

The actual mass of a nucleus is not simply the sum of the masses of all its constituent
nucleons. Energy (Q = -m c2, which is equivalent to mass) can be released or absorbed
in nuclear reaction forming the nucleus.

c 2 = 931.494013 MeV/u (42-5)

=M −A (excess mass) (42-6)

M is the actual mass of the atom in atomic mass units and A is the mass number for
the nucleus.
The Mass Deficit of the Nucleus and Nuclear
Binding Energy

m = 4.0330 u − 4.0026 u = 0.0304 u

1 u  931.5 MeV

Binding energy = 28.3 MeV

 • A nucleus 𝑋 will decay into a lighter nucleus 𝑋’, with
the emission of one or more particles we call
Conservation of collectively 𝑦 only if the rest energy of 𝑋 is greater
than the total rest energy of 𝑋 ′ + 𝑦.
Energy • The excess rest energy is known as the Q value of the
decay 𝑋 → 𝑋 ′ + 𝑦: 𝑄 = [𝑚𝑋 − 𝑚′𝑋 + 𝑚𝑦 𝑐 2

• If the initially decaying nucleus is at rest, then the total

Conservation of linear momentum of all of the decay products must
sum to zero:
Linear Momentum • 𝑝𝑋′ + 𝑝𝑦 = 0

Conservation of • The total spin angular momentum of the initial particle before
the decay must equal the total angular momentum (spin plus
Angular Momentum orbital) of all of the product particles after the decay

Conservation of • The total net electric charge before the decay must
Electric Charge equal the net electric charge after the decay.

• The total nucleon number A does not change in decay or reaction

Conservation of processes.
• In some decay processes, A remains constant because both Z and N
Nucleon Number remain unchanged; in other processes Z and N both change in such a way
as to keep their sum constant.
Radioactivity: -decay

transmutation

• When a nucleus disintegrates and produce  rays

• Consists of positively charged particles
• 2 protons and 2 neutron in helium nucleus; stable -  particle can be ejected as a unit from
a more massive unstable nucleus.

A− 4
A
Z P → Z −2 D + 4
2 He
Radioactivity: 𝛽-decay
• During beta decay, energy is released. However, it is found that most beta particles
do not have enough kinetic energy to account for all of the energy released.
• If a beta particles carries away only part of the energy, where does reminder go??
• The additional energy is carried away by a neutrino that is emitted along with a 
particle- 1930, Wolfgang Pauli and verified by experimentation in 1956

+ Antineutrino

234
90 Th → 234
91 Pa + 0
−1 e + n (Antineutrino)
Antineutrino -  -
Neutrino -  +
Radioactivity: DECAY
• The particle emitted by the nucleus is a positron
has the same mass as an e but carries a charge of
+e instead Aof –e
Z P → A
Z −1 D + 1e + n
0

• The emitted positron does not exists within the

nucleus but rather is created when a nuclear
proton is transformed into a neutron. In the
process, the p number of the parent nucleus
decreases from Z to Z-1 and the nucleon number
remains the same.
Radioactivity: -DECAY
A
Z P 
→ A
Z P + 

excited energy
lower energy
state
state

Only exists in discrete energy states or level

 Radioactive Decay
As shown in previous Fig. , most known nuclides are unstable/radioactive.

There is absolutely no way to predict whether any given nucleus in a

radioactive sample will be among the small number of nuclei that decay
during the next second. All have the same chance.

Nuclear decay rate dN/dt is proportional to the number N of nuclei that can decay

dN dN
− = N (42-11) − = dt (42-12)
dt N
dN
ln N − ln N0 = - (t - t0 )
N t
N0 N =- t0 dt (42-13)
N -t
ln
N
= -t (let t0 = 0) (42-14) = e
N0 N0

N = N 0 e- t (radioactive decay) (42-15)

 .
Radioactive Decay and Activity

• The half-life 𝑇1 of a radioactive

2
decay is the time in which ½ of
the radioactive nuclei
disintegrate:
𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
• where 𝜆 = decay
constant/disintegration
Radioactive Dating
• Shorter time intervals (pre-historic and historic dating):
• 14C→12C with T1/2=5730 y, 14C is produced at constant rate in upper atmosphere.
Living organisms absorb both 14C and 12C while alive, maintaining a constant ratio.
Once dead, no more C is absorbed and the remaining 14C begins to decay into
stable 12C. By measuring 14C to 12C in organic matter (bones, fossils, parchment)
→can determine when the organism that produced the organic matter died. This
type of technique is used to date artifacts ranging from the charcoal in ancient
campfires to the Dead Sea Scrolls.
5 Particle Physics and Cosmology
Cosmology
Expanding Cosmic
Universe – microwave
Hubble’s Law background

Dark Matter The Big Bang

Exam Questions
What to Read?
• Derivations and principles for derivations (e.g. 𝑈 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥)
• Examples from lecture note!
• Problem sheets and worksheets
The End
Good luck!